Negotiating Islam, Democracy and Pluralism: Islamic Politics and the State in Post-Reform Indonesia
Keywords:
Islamic Politics, Democracy, Pluralism, Post-Reform Indonesia, Contested Accommodation
Abstract
The question of how democratic states navigate religious aspirations remains central in Muslim-majority societies. In Indonesia, this relationship has followed a nonlinear trajectory shaped by political alliances, institutional asymmetries, and ideological transformations. This article explores how successive governments—from Habibie to Joko Widodo—have managed the complex intersection of Islam, democracy, and pluralism. Using a qualitative comparative approach, it identifies shifts in state strategies toward Islamic political expression, ranging from symbolic inclusion to legal restriction and bureaucratic regulation. The concept of contested accommodation is proposed to explain how Islamic norms have been selectively engaged, redirected, or constrained through evolving institutional mechanisms. While some administrations prioritized inclusive pluralism, others aligned with conservative religious agendas. Populist religiosity, transnational influences, and media amplification further shaped the policy landscape. The findings suggest that Islamic political expression in Indonesia is neither fully absorbed nor rejected, but continually renegotiated. Pluralism, in this context, is sustained not through ideological consensus but through ongoing recalibration within democratic institutions.
References
Ahmad, Abd. Kadir. "The Whip Law, Implementing Shari'a Formalization at Local Community: The Case of Padang Village in Bulukumba, South Sulawesi." International Journal of Engineering & Technology 7, no. 2.29 (2018): 311. https://doi.org/10.14419/ijet.v7i2.29.13644.
Ahyar, Muzayyin, and Alfitri Alfitri. "Aksi Bela Islam: Islamic Clicktivism and the New Authority of Religious Propaganda in the Millennial Age in Indonesia." Indonesian Journal of Islam and Muslim Societies 9, no. 1 (2019): 1–29. https://doi.org/10.18326/ijims.v9i1. 1-29.
Antlöv, Hans, Anna Wetterberg, and Leni Dharmawan. "Village Governance, Community Life, and the 2014 Village Law in Indonesia." Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies 52, no. 2 (May 3, 2016): 161–83. https://doi.org/10.1080/00074918.2015.1129047.
Arifianto, Alexander R. "Moderate Islamic Organisations and Contestation Over Political Theology: The Responses by Nahdlatul Ulama and Muhammadiyah Towards Islamism in Indonesia." In The Palgrave Handbook of Political Norms in Southeast Asia, edited by Gabriel Facal, Elsa Lafaye De Micheaux, and Astrid Norén-Nilsson, 337–55. Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9655-1_20.
———. "The State of Political Islam in Indonesia: The Historical Antecedent and Future Prospects." Asia Policy 15, no. 4 (October 2020): 111–32. https://doi.org/10.1353/asp.2020.0059.
Aspinall, Edward, and Marcus Mietzner. Problems of Democratization in Indonesia: Elections, Institutions and Society. Singapore: ISEAS Publishing, 2010.
Aspinall, Edward, and Mada Sukmajati, eds. Electoral Dynamics in Indonesia: Money Politics, Patronage and Clientelism at the Grassroots. NUS Press Pte Ltd, 2018. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv1xxzz2.
Barkin, Gareth. "Commercial Islam in Indonesia: How Television Producers Mediate Religiosity among National Audiences." International Journal of Asian Studies 11, no. 1 (January 2014): 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1479591413000181.
Barton, Greg. Abdurrahman Wahid: Muslim Democrat, Indonesian President. Sydney: UNSW Press, 2002.
———. "Indonesia’s Nurcholish Madjid and Abdurrahman Wahid as Intellectual Ulama: The Meeting of Islamic Traditionalism and Modernism in Neo‐modernist Thought.” Islam and Christian–Muslim Relations 8, no. 3 (October 1997): 323–50. https://doi.org/10.1080/09596419708721130.
Buehler, Michael. The Politics of Shari’a Law: Islamist Activists and the State in Democratizing Indonesia. 1st ed. Cambridge University Press, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781316417843.
Buehler, Michael, and Dani Muhtada. “Democratization and the Diffusion of Shari’a Law.” South East Asia Research 24, no. 2 (2016): 261–82. https://doi.org/10.1177/0967828x16649311.
Burhani, Ahmad Najib. “Aksi Bela Islam: Konservatisme Dan Fragmentasi Otoritas Keagamaan.” MAARIF 11, no. 2 (2016): 15–28.
Bush, Robin, ed. “10. Regional Sharia Regulations in Indonesia: Anomaly or Symptom?” In Expressing Islam, 174–91. ISEAS Publishing, 2008. https://doi.org/10.1355/9789812308528-014.
Castells, Manuel. The Power of Identity: The Information Age, Economi, Society, and Culture. West Sussex, UK: Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 2010.
Crehan, Kate. Gramsci’s Common Sense: Inequality and Its Narratives. Durham: Duke University Press, 2016.
Diprose, Rachael, Dave McRae, and Vedi R. Hadiz. “Two Decades of Reformasi in Indonesia: Its Illiberal Turn.” Journal of Contemporary Asia, July 25, 2019, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/00472336.2019.1637922.
Emzaed, Ali Murtadho, Kamsi Kamsi, and Ali Akhbar Abaib Mas Rabbani Lubis. “A Politics of Recognition: The Legislation of Zakat Law in a Transition of New Order and Reform Era.” Ulumuna 24, no. 2 (December 31, 2020): 320–47. https://doi.org/10.20414/ujis.v24i2.404.
Faguet, Jean-Paul. “Decentralization and Governance.” World Development 53 (January 2014): 2–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2013.01.002.
Fatgehipon, Abdul Haris. “The Relationship Amongst Soeharto, Military, and Muslim in the End of the New Order Regime.” Paramita: Historical Studies Journal 26, no. 1 (February 20, 2016): 1. https://doi.org/10.15294/paramita.v26i1.5141.
Fealy, Greg, and Sally White, eds. “10. Regional Sharia Regulations in Indonesia: Anomaly or Symptom?” In Expressing Islam, 174–91. ISEAS Publishing, 2008. https://doi.org/10.1355/9789812308528-014.
———. Expressing Islam: Religious Life and Politics in Indonesia. Singapore: ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute., 2008.
Feener, R. Michael. Shariʿa and Social Engineering: The Implementation of Islamic Law in Contemporary Aceh, Indonesia. 1st ed. Oxford University PressOxford, 2013. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199678846.001.0001.
Fossati, Diego. “When Conservatives Support Decentralization: The Case of Political Islam in Indonesia.” Regional & Federal Studies 33, no. 2 (March 15, 2023): 209–33. https://doi.org/10.1080/13597566.2021.1951252.
Fossati, Diego, Hui Yew-Foong, and Siwage Dharma Negara. The Indonesia National Survey Project: Economy, Society and Politics. Singapore: ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute, 2017.
Gillespie, P. “Current Issues in Indonesian Islam: Analyzing the 2005 Council of Indonesian Ulama Fatwa No. 7 Opposing Pluralism, Liberalism and Secularism.” Journal of Islamic Studies 18, no. 2 (February 9, 2007): 202–40. https://doi.org/10.1093/jis/etm001.
Green, Marcus E. “Rethinking the Subaltern and the Question of Censorship in Gramsci’s Prison Notebooks.” Postcolonial Studies 14, no. 4 (December 2011): 387–404. https://doi.org/10.1080/13688790.2011.641913.
Hadiz, Vedi R. “The ‘Floating’Ummahin the Fall of ‘Ahok’ in Indonesia.” Trans Trans -Regional and -National Studies of Southeast Asia 7, no. 2 (2018): 271–90. https://doi.org/10.1017/trn.2018.16.
Hakim, Rakhmat Nur, and Icha Rastika. “Beda Pembubaran FPI Dan HTI.” Kompas.Com (blog), 2020.
https://nasional.kompas.com/read/2020/12/31/06310021/beda-pembubaran-fpi-dan-hti.
Hamayotsu, Kikue. “The End of Political Islam? A Comparative Analysis of Religious Parties in the Muslim Democracy of Indonesia.” Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs 30, no. 3 (September 2011): 133–59. https://doi.org/10.1177/186810341103000305.
Hasyim, Syafiq. “Fatwas and Democracy: Majelis Ulama Indonesia (MUI, Indonesian Ulema Council) and Rising Conservatism in Indonesian Islam.” TRaNS: Trans -Regional and -National Studies of Southeast Asia 8, no. 1 (May 2020): 21–35. https://doi.org/10.1017/trn.2019.13.
Hefner, Robert W. Civil Islam: Muslims and Democratization in Indonesia. Princeton University Press, 2011. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400823871.
Hilmy, Masdar. “Manufacturing The ‘Ontological Enemy’: Socio-Political Construction of Anti-Democracy Discourses among HTI Activists in Post-New Order Indonesia.” JOURNAL OF INDONESIAN ISLAM 3, no. 2 (December 1, 2009): 341. https://doi.org/10.15642/JIIS.2009.3.2.341-369.
Jones, Sidney. “Briefing for the New President: The Terrorist Threat in Indonesia and Southeast Asia.” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 618, no. 1 (2008): 69–78. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716208316962.
Jurriens, Edwin, ed. “9. Social Media and Islamic Practice: Indonesian Ways of Being Digitally Pious.” In Digital Indonesia, 146–62. ISEAS Publishing, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1355/9789814786003-015.
Kusumo, Rangga, and Hurriyah Hurriyah. “Populisme Islam Di Indonesia: Studi Kasus Aksi Bela Islam Oleh GNPF-MUI Tahun 2016-2017.” Jurnal Politik 4, no. 1 (2019): 87. https://doi.org/10.7454/jp.v4i1.172.
Levitsky, S., and D. Ziblatt. How Democracies Die. New York: Crown Publishing Group, 2018.
Liddle, R. William. “B. J. Habibie and the Transformation of Indonesian Politics.” Indonesia 112, no. 1 (October 2021): 31–76. https://doi.org/10.1353/ind.2021.0006.
Lindsay, Jennifer. “Media and Morality: Pornography Post Soeharto.” In Politics and the Media in Twenty First Century Indonesia; Decade of Democracy, 172–95. oxon: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2011.
Long, Nicholas J. “‘Straightening What’s Crooked’? Recognition as Moral Disruption in Indonesia’s Confucianist Revival.” Anthropological Forum 29, no. 4 (October 2, 2019): 335–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/00664677.2019.1664984.
Mahfud, Choirul, Niken Prasetyawati, Wahyuddin Wahyuddin, Dyah Satya Yoga Agustin, and Heni Sukmawati. “Religious Radicalism, Global Terrorism and Islamic Challanges in Contemporary Indonesia.” Jurnal Sosial Humaniora 11, no. 1 (July 27, 2018): 8. https://doi.org/10.12962/j24433527.v11i1.3550.
Mariani, Nina. “Ahmadiyah, Conflicts, and Violence in Contemporary Indonesia.” Indonesian Journal of Islam and Muslim Societies 3, no. 1 (June 1, 2013): 1. https://doi.org/10.18326/ijims.v3i1.1-30.
Menchik, Jeremy. Islam and Democracy in Indonesia: Tolerance without Liberalism. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2016.
———. “Productive Intolerance: Godly Nationalism in Indonesia.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 56, no. 3 (2014): 591–621. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0010417514000267.
Mietzner, Marcus. “Military Politics, Islam and the State in Indonesia: From Turbulent Transition to Democratic Consolidation.” ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute, 2008.
Mietzner, Marcus, Associate Professor at the Department of Political and Social Change, Coral Bell School of Asia Pacific Affairs, Australian National University, Canberra., Burhanuddin Muhtadi, and Senior Lecturer at the Faculty of Social and Political Sciences, Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University, Jakarta, Executive Director of the Indonesian Political Indicator (Indikator Politik Indonesia) and Director of Public Affairs at the Indonesian Survey Institute (Lembaga Survei Indonesia, LSI). “The Myth of Pluralism: Nahdlatul Ulama and the Politics of Religious Tolerance in Indonesia.” Contemporary Southeast Asia 42, no. 1 (2020): 58–84. https://doi.org/10.1355/cs42-1c.
Miichi, Ken. “The Role of Religion and Ethnicity in Jakarta’s 2012 Gubernatorial Election.” Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs 33, no. 1 (2014): 55–83. https://doi.org/10.1177/186810341403300104.
Misbah, Muhammad, and Anisah Setyaningrum. “Rising Islamic Conservatism in Indonesia Islamic Groups and Identity Politics, by Leonard C. Sebastian, Syafiq Hasyim, Alexander R. Arifianto.” Bijdragen Tot de Taal-, Land- En Volkenkunde / Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences of Southeast Asia 178, no. 1 (April 5, 2022): 136–39. https://doi.org/10.1163/22134379-17801008.
Ngenget, Indiana. “Kebangkitan Islam Politik: Analisis Gerakan Aksi Bela Islam Dalam Pilkada DKI Jakarta 2017,” 2018. https://doi.org/10.31227/osf.io/q782c.
Nurjaman, Asep. “The Decline of Islamic Parties and the Dynamics of Party System in Post-Suharto Indonesia.” Jurnal Ilmu Sosial Dan Ilmu Politik 27, no. 2 (2023): 192. https://doi.org/10.22146/jsp.79698.
Nurjaman, Ilham Muhamad, Samsudin Samsudin, and Sulasman Sulasman. “Peran ICMI Masa Kepemimpinan BJ Habibie (1990-2000) Dalam Pembangunan Nasional.” Hanifiya: Jurnal Studi Agama-Agama 5, no. 1 (April 27, 2022): 59–70. https://doi.org/10.15575/hanifiya.v5i1.15925.
Nuryana, Arief, and Tri Guntur Narwaya. “Discourse on the Disbandment of Front Pembela Islam and Renegotiation of Democratic Ideas.” Journal Communication Spectrum: Capturing New Perspectives in Communication 13, no. 1 (2023): 60–71.
Pribadi, Yanwar. “Kebangkitan Konservatisme Islam: Politik Identitas Dan Potret Demokrasi Di Indonesia.” Studia Islamika 28, no. 2 (2021): 457–71. https://doi.org/10.36712/sdi.v28i2.22204.
Qodir, Zuly. “Post-Islamism And Reform Islamic Law: The Challenges And Future Of Political Islam In Indonesia.” Ahkam 23, no. 2 (2023). https://doi.org/10.15408/ajis.v23i2.31484.
Rahman, Riki, and Faisal S Hazis. “ICMI and Its Roles in the Development of the Middle Class Muslim Communities in Indonesia in the New Order Era.” Al-Jami’ah: Journal of Islamic Studies 56, no. 2 (May 26, 2019): 341–66. https://doi.org/10.14421/ajis.2018.562.341-366.
Ratnawati, Tri. “Crouch, Harold. (2010). Political Reform in Indonesia after Soeharto.” Journal of Indonesian Social Sciences and Humanities 3, no. 1 (December 5, 2018): 131–42. https://doi.org/10.14203/jissh.v3i1.49.
Rinaldo, Rachel, ed. “10. Religion and the Politics of Morality: Muslim Women Activists and the Pornography Debate in Indonesia.” In Encountering Islam, 247–68. ISEAS Publishing, 2012. https://doi.org/10.1355/9789814379939-012.
———. Mobilizing Piety: Islam and Feminism in Indonesia. Oxford University Press, 2013. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199948109.001.0001.
Rochmat, Saefur. “Abdurrahman Wahid on the Public Role of Islam and Theory of Secularization.” Asian Social Science 13, no. 11 (October 30, 2017): 170. https://doi.org/10.5539/ass.v13n11p170.
Rosidi, Imron. “The ICMI (Association of Indonesian Muslim Intellectuals) and Its Political Tendency during the Indonesian New Order.” Jurnal Ilmiah Universitas Batanghari Jambi 22, no. 3 (October 31, 2022): 1918. https://doi.org/10.33087/jiubj.v22i3.2333.
Roy, Oliver. Globalized Islam: The Search for a New Ummah. New York: Columbia Univeristy Press, 2004.
Sari, Wulan Purnama. “Analisis Wacana Kritis Kasus Penyerangan Terhadap Jemaah Ahmadiyah Di Cikeusik.” Jurnal Komunikasi 10, no. 1 (2018): 87. https://doi.org/10.24912/jk.v10i1.1507.
Schedler, Andreas. “Elections Without Democracy: The Menu of Manipulation.” Journal of Democracy 13, no. 2 (April 2002): 36–50. https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.2002.0031.
Scheppele, Kim Lane. “Autocratic Legalism.” The University of Chicago Law Review 85, no. 2 (2018): 545–83. https://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/uclrev/vol85/iss2/2/.
Sebastian, Leonard C., and Alexander R. Arifianto. “From Civil Islam Towards NKRI Bersyariah? Understanding Rising Islamism in Post-Reformasi Indonesia,” 2018. https://doi.org/10.2991/icsps-17.2018.65.
Suhelmi, Ahmad. “Communism Debated Again: The Muslim Response to the Idea of Revoking the 1966 Anti-Communism in Post-Soeharto Indonesia.” Studia Islamika 13, no. 1 (January 1, 1970). https://doi.org/10.15408/sdi.v13i1.574.
———. “Communism Debated Again: The Muslim Response to the Idea of Revoking the 1966 Anti-Communism in Post-Soeharto Indonesia.” Studia Islamika 13, no. 1 (2006). https://doi.org/10.15408/sdi.v13i1.574.
Supriatma, Made. “B.J. Habibie: Presiden Peralihan, Peletak Dasar Demokrasi Indonesia.” Tirto.Id (blog), 2019. https://tirto.id/bj-habibie-presiden-peralihan-peletak-dasar-demokrasi-indonesia-ehVD.
Suryadinata, Leo. “Indonesia: Continuing Challenges and Fragile Stability.” Southeast Asian Affairs, ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institut, 2004, 87–103.
Syarif, Zainuddin, and Abd Hannan. “Islamic Populism Politics and Its Threat to Indonesian Democracy.” Al-Tahrir Jurnal Pemikiran Islam 20, no. 2 (2020): 251–77. https://doi.org/10.21154/altahrir.v20i2.2128.
Takdir, Mohammad. “Contestation and the Roles of Islam in the Public Sphere: A Sociological Analysis of Religious Secularization in Indonesia and the West.” Afkaruna 20, no. 2 (2020). https://doi.org/10.18196/aiijis.2020.0119.154-174.
Thompson, Simon. “The Regulation of Religion in Public Spaces.” Politics and Religion 16, no. 1 (2022): 27–44. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1755048322000372.
Wahid, Din. “Kembalinya Konservatisme Islam Indonesia.” Studia Islamika 21, no. 2 (November 12, 2014). https://doi.org/10.15408/sdi.v21i2.1043.
Warburton, Eve, and Edward Aspinall. “Explaining Indonesia’s Democratic Regression: Structure, Agency and Popular Opinion.” Contemporary Southeast Asia, 41, no. 2 (2019): 255–85. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26798854.
Yahya, Achmad Nasrudin, and Kristian Erdianto. “Azyumardi Azra: Pembubaran HTI Dan FPI Jadi Peristiwa Penting Dalam Sejarah Gerakan Islam Di Indonesia.” Kompas.Com (blog), 2021.
https://nasional.kompas.com/read/2021/01/15/19374191/azyumardi-azra-pembubaran-hti-dan-fpi-jadi-peristiwa-penting-dalam-sejarah.
Yilmaz, Ihsan, Whisnu Triwibowo, Hasnan Bachtiar, and Greg Barton. “Competing Populisms, Digital Technologies and the 2024 Elections in Indonesia.” European Center for Populism Studies (ECPS), January 2, 2024. https://doi.org/10.55271/pp0029.
Zulfadli, Zulfadli, and Taufani Taufani. “Kemunduran Demokrasi Dan Pelarangan Organisasi Islamis Di Era Pemerintahan Jokowi.” Potret Pemikiran 26, no. 2 (2022): 117. https://doi.org/10.30984/pp.v26i2.2033.
Ahyar, Muzayyin, and Alfitri Alfitri. "Aksi Bela Islam: Islamic Clicktivism and the New Authority of Religious Propaganda in the Millennial Age in Indonesia." Indonesian Journal of Islam and Muslim Societies 9, no. 1 (2019): 1–29. https://doi.org/10.18326/ijims.v9i1. 1-29.
Antlöv, Hans, Anna Wetterberg, and Leni Dharmawan. "Village Governance, Community Life, and the 2014 Village Law in Indonesia." Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies 52, no. 2 (May 3, 2016): 161–83. https://doi.org/10.1080/00074918.2015.1129047.
Arifianto, Alexander R. "Moderate Islamic Organisations and Contestation Over Political Theology: The Responses by Nahdlatul Ulama and Muhammadiyah Towards Islamism in Indonesia." In The Palgrave Handbook of Political Norms in Southeast Asia, edited by Gabriel Facal, Elsa Lafaye De Micheaux, and Astrid Norén-Nilsson, 337–55. Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9655-1_20.
———. "The State of Political Islam in Indonesia: The Historical Antecedent and Future Prospects." Asia Policy 15, no. 4 (October 2020): 111–32. https://doi.org/10.1353/asp.2020.0059.
Aspinall, Edward, and Marcus Mietzner. Problems of Democratization in Indonesia: Elections, Institutions and Society. Singapore: ISEAS Publishing, 2010.
Aspinall, Edward, and Mada Sukmajati, eds. Electoral Dynamics in Indonesia: Money Politics, Patronage and Clientelism at the Grassroots. NUS Press Pte Ltd, 2018. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv1xxzz2.
Barkin, Gareth. "Commercial Islam in Indonesia: How Television Producers Mediate Religiosity among National Audiences." International Journal of Asian Studies 11, no. 1 (January 2014): 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1479591413000181.
Barton, Greg. Abdurrahman Wahid: Muslim Democrat, Indonesian President. Sydney: UNSW Press, 2002.
———. "Indonesia’s Nurcholish Madjid and Abdurrahman Wahid as Intellectual Ulama: The Meeting of Islamic Traditionalism and Modernism in Neo‐modernist Thought.” Islam and Christian–Muslim Relations 8, no. 3 (October 1997): 323–50. https://doi.org/10.1080/09596419708721130.
Buehler, Michael. The Politics of Shari’a Law: Islamist Activists and the State in Democratizing Indonesia. 1st ed. Cambridge University Press, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781316417843.
Buehler, Michael, and Dani Muhtada. “Democratization and the Diffusion of Shari’a Law.” South East Asia Research 24, no. 2 (2016): 261–82. https://doi.org/10.1177/0967828x16649311.
Burhani, Ahmad Najib. “Aksi Bela Islam: Konservatisme Dan Fragmentasi Otoritas Keagamaan.” MAARIF 11, no. 2 (2016): 15–28.
Bush, Robin, ed. “10. Regional Sharia Regulations in Indonesia: Anomaly or Symptom?” In Expressing Islam, 174–91. ISEAS Publishing, 2008. https://doi.org/10.1355/9789812308528-014.
Castells, Manuel. The Power of Identity: The Information Age, Economi, Society, and Culture. West Sussex, UK: Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 2010.
Crehan, Kate. Gramsci’s Common Sense: Inequality and Its Narratives. Durham: Duke University Press, 2016.
Diprose, Rachael, Dave McRae, and Vedi R. Hadiz. “Two Decades of Reformasi in Indonesia: Its Illiberal Turn.” Journal of Contemporary Asia, July 25, 2019, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/00472336.2019.1637922.
Emzaed, Ali Murtadho, Kamsi Kamsi, and Ali Akhbar Abaib Mas Rabbani Lubis. “A Politics of Recognition: The Legislation of Zakat Law in a Transition of New Order and Reform Era.” Ulumuna 24, no. 2 (December 31, 2020): 320–47. https://doi.org/10.20414/ujis.v24i2.404.
Faguet, Jean-Paul. “Decentralization and Governance.” World Development 53 (January 2014): 2–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2013.01.002.
Fatgehipon, Abdul Haris. “The Relationship Amongst Soeharto, Military, and Muslim in the End of the New Order Regime.” Paramita: Historical Studies Journal 26, no. 1 (February 20, 2016): 1. https://doi.org/10.15294/paramita.v26i1.5141.
Fealy, Greg, and Sally White, eds. “10. Regional Sharia Regulations in Indonesia: Anomaly or Symptom?” In Expressing Islam, 174–91. ISEAS Publishing, 2008. https://doi.org/10.1355/9789812308528-014.
———. Expressing Islam: Religious Life and Politics in Indonesia. Singapore: ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute., 2008.
Feener, R. Michael. Shariʿa and Social Engineering: The Implementation of Islamic Law in Contemporary Aceh, Indonesia. 1st ed. Oxford University PressOxford, 2013. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199678846.001.0001.
Fossati, Diego. “When Conservatives Support Decentralization: The Case of Political Islam in Indonesia.” Regional & Federal Studies 33, no. 2 (March 15, 2023): 209–33. https://doi.org/10.1080/13597566.2021.1951252.
Fossati, Diego, Hui Yew-Foong, and Siwage Dharma Negara. The Indonesia National Survey Project: Economy, Society and Politics. Singapore: ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute, 2017.
Gillespie, P. “Current Issues in Indonesian Islam: Analyzing the 2005 Council of Indonesian Ulama Fatwa No. 7 Opposing Pluralism, Liberalism and Secularism.” Journal of Islamic Studies 18, no. 2 (February 9, 2007): 202–40. https://doi.org/10.1093/jis/etm001.
Green, Marcus E. “Rethinking the Subaltern and the Question of Censorship in Gramsci’s Prison Notebooks.” Postcolonial Studies 14, no. 4 (December 2011): 387–404. https://doi.org/10.1080/13688790.2011.641913.
Hadiz, Vedi R. “The ‘Floating’Ummahin the Fall of ‘Ahok’ in Indonesia.” Trans Trans -Regional and -National Studies of Southeast Asia 7, no. 2 (2018): 271–90. https://doi.org/10.1017/trn.2018.16.
Hakim, Rakhmat Nur, and Icha Rastika. “Beda Pembubaran FPI Dan HTI.” Kompas.Com (blog), 2020.
https://nasional.kompas.com/read/2020/12/31/06310021/beda-pembubaran-fpi-dan-hti.
Hamayotsu, Kikue. “The End of Political Islam? A Comparative Analysis of Religious Parties in the Muslim Democracy of Indonesia.” Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs 30, no. 3 (September 2011): 133–59. https://doi.org/10.1177/186810341103000305.
Hasyim, Syafiq. “Fatwas and Democracy: Majelis Ulama Indonesia (MUI, Indonesian Ulema Council) and Rising Conservatism in Indonesian Islam.” TRaNS: Trans -Regional and -National Studies of Southeast Asia 8, no. 1 (May 2020): 21–35. https://doi.org/10.1017/trn.2019.13.
Hefner, Robert W. Civil Islam: Muslims and Democratization in Indonesia. Princeton University Press, 2011. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400823871.
Hilmy, Masdar. “Manufacturing The ‘Ontological Enemy’: Socio-Political Construction of Anti-Democracy Discourses among HTI Activists in Post-New Order Indonesia.” JOURNAL OF INDONESIAN ISLAM 3, no. 2 (December 1, 2009): 341. https://doi.org/10.15642/JIIS.2009.3.2.341-369.
Jones, Sidney. “Briefing for the New President: The Terrorist Threat in Indonesia and Southeast Asia.” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 618, no. 1 (2008): 69–78. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716208316962.
Jurriens, Edwin, ed. “9. Social Media and Islamic Practice: Indonesian Ways of Being Digitally Pious.” In Digital Indonesia, 146–62. ISEAS Publishing, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1355/9789814786003-015.
Kusumo, Rangga, and Hurriyah Hurriyah. “Populisme Islam Di Indonesia: Studi Kasus Aksi Bela Islam Oleh GNPF-MUI Tahun 2016-2017.” Jurnal Politik 4, no. 1 (2019): 87. https://doi.org/10.7454/jp.v4i1.172.
Levitsky, S., and D. Ziblatt. How Democracies Die. New York: Crown Publishing Group, 2018.
Liddle, R. William. “B. J. Habibie and the Transformation of Indonesian Politics.” Indonesia 112, no. 1 (October 2021): 31–76. https://doi.org/10.1353/ind.2021.0006.
Lindsay, Jennifer. “Media and Morality: Pornography Post Soeharto.” In Politics and the Media in Twenty First Century Indonesia; Decade of Democracy, 172–95. oxon: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2011.
Long, Nicholas J. “‘Straightening What’s Crooked’? Recognition as Moral Disruption in Indonesia’s Confucianist Revival.” Anthropological Forum 29, no. 4 (October 2, 2019): 335–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/00664677.2019.1664984.
Mahfud, Choirul, Niken Prasetyawati, Wahyuddin Wahyuddin, Dyah Satya Yoga Agustin, and Heni Sukmawati. “Religious Radicalism, Global Terrorism and Islamic Challanges in Contemporary Indonesia.” Jurnal Sosial Humaniora 11, no. 1 (July 27, 2018): 8. https://doi.org/10.12962/j24433527.v11i1.3550.
Mariani, Nina. “Ahmadiyah, Conflicts, and Violence in Contemporary Indonesia.” Indonesian Journal of Islam and Muslim Societies 3, no. 1 (June 1, 2013): 1. https://doi.org/10.18326/ijims.v3i1.1-30.
Menchik, Jeremy. Islam and Democracy in Indonesia: Tolerance without Liberalism. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2016.
———. “Productive Intolerance: Godly Nationalism in Indonesia.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 56, no. 3 (2014): 591–621. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0010417514000267.
Mietzner, Marcus. “Military Politics, Islam and the State in Indonesia: From Turbulent Transition to Democratic Consolidation.” ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute, 2008.
Mietzner, Marcus, Associate Professor at the Department of Political and Social Change, Coral Bell School of Asia Pacific Affairs, Australian National University, Canberra., Burhanuddin Muhtadi, and Senior Lecturer at the Faculty of Social and Political Sciences, Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University, Jakarta, Executive Director of the Indonesian Political Indicator (Indikator Politik Indonesia) and Director of Public Affairs at the Indonesian Survey Institute (Lembaga Survei Indonesia, LSI). “The Myth of Pluralism: Nahdlatul Ulama and the Politics of Religious Tolerance in Indonesia.” Contemporary Southeast Asia 42, no. 1 (2020): 58–84. https://doi.org/10.1355/cs42-1c.
Miichi, Ken. “The Role of Religion and Ethnicity in Jakarta’s 2012 Gubernatorial Election.” Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs 33, no. 1 (2014): 55–83. https://doi.org/10.1177/186810341403300104.
Misbah, Muhammad, and Anisah Setyaningrum. “Rising Islamic Conservatism in Indonesia Islamic Groups and Identity Politics, by Leonard C. Sebastian, Syafiq Hasyim, Alexander R. Arifianto.” Bijdragen Tot de Taal-, Land- En Volkenkunde / Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences of Southeast Asia 178, no. 1 (April 5, 2022): 136–39. https://doi.org/10.1163/22134379-17801008.
Ngenget, Indiana. “Kebangkitan Islam Politik: Analisis Gerakan Aksi Bela Islam Dalam Pilkada DKI Jakarta 2017,” 2018. https://doi.org/10.31227/osf.io/q782c.
Nurjaman, Asep. “The Decline of Islamic Parties and the Dynamics of Party System in Post-Suharto Indonesia.” Jurnal Ilmu Sosial Dan Ilmu Politik 27, no. 2 (2023): 192. https://doi.org/10.22146/jsp.79698.
Nurjaman, Ilham Muhamad, Samsudin Samsudin, and Sulasman Sulasman. “Peran ICMI Masa Kepemimpinan BJ Habibie (1990-2000) Dalam Pembangunan Nasional.” Hanifiya: Jurnal Studi Agama-Agama 5, no. 1 (April 27, 2022): 59–70. https://doi.org/10.15575/hanifiya.v5i1.15925.
Nuryana, Arief, and Tri Guntur Narwaya. “Discourse on the Disbandment of Front Pembela Islam and Renegotiation of Democratic Ideas.” Journal Communication Spectrum: Capturing New Perspectives in Communication 13, no. 1 (2023): 60–71.
Pribadi, Yanwar. “Kebangkitan Konservatisme Islam: Politik Identitas Dan Potret Demokrasi Di Indonesia.” Studia Islamika 28, no. 2 (2021): 457–71. https://doi.org/10.36712/sdi.v28i2.22204.
Qodir, Zuly. “Post-Islamism And Reform Islamic Law: The Challenges And Future Of Political Islam In Indonesia.” Ahkam 23, no. 2 (2023). https://doi.org/10.15408/ajis.v23i2.31484.
Rahman, Riki, and Faisal S Hazis. “ICMI and Its Roles in the Development of the Middle Class Muslim Communities in Indonesia in the New Order Era.” Al-Jami’ah: Journal of Islamic Studies 56, no. 2 (May 26, 2019): 341–66. https://doi.org/10.14421/ajis.2018.562.341-366.
Ratnawati, Tri. “Crouch, Harold. (2010). Political Reform in Indonesia after Soeharto.” Journal of Indonesian Social Sciences and Humanities 3, no. 1 (December 5, 2018): 131–42. https://doi.org/10.14203/jissh.v3i1.49.
Rinaldo, Rachel, ed. “10. Religion and the Politics of Morality: Muslim Women Activists and the Pornography Debate in Indonesia.” In Encountering Islam, 247–68. ISEAS Publishing, 2012. https://doi.org/10.1355/9789814379939-012.
———. Mobilizing Piety: Islam and Feminism in Indonesia. Oxford University Press, 2013. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199948109.001.0001.
Rochmat, Saefur. “Abdurrahman Wahid on the Public Role of Islam and Theory of Secularization.” Asian Social Science 13, no. 11 (October 30, 2017): 170. https://doi.org/10.5539/ass.v13n11p170.
Rosidi, Imron. “The ICMI (Association of Indonesian Muslim Intellectuals) and Its Political Tendency during the Indonesian New Order.” Jurnal Ilmiah Universitas Batanghari Jambi 22, no. 3 (October 31, 2022): 1918. https://doi.org/10.33087/jiubj.v22i3.2333.
Roy, Oliver. Globalized Islam: The Search for a New Ummah. New York: Columbia Univeristy Press, 2004.
Sari, Wulan Purnama. “Analisis Wacana Kritis Kasus Penyerangan Terhadap Jemaah Ahmadiyah Di Cikeusik.” Jurnal Komunikasi 10, no. 1 (2018): 87. https://doi.org/10.24912/jk.v10i1.1507.
Schedler, Andreas. “Elections Without Democracy: The Menu of Manipulation.” Journal of Democracy 13, no. 2 (April 2002): 36–50. https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.2002.0031.
Scheppele, Kim Lane. “Autocratic Legalism.” The University of Chicago Law Review 85, no. 2 (2018): 545–83. https://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/uclrev/vol85/iss2/2/.
Sebastian, Leonard C., and Alexander R. Arifianto. “From Civil Islam Towards NKRI Bersyariah? Understanding Rising Islamism in Post-Reformasi Indonesia,” 2018. https://doi.org/10.2991/icsps-17.2018.65.
Suhelmi, Ahmad. “Communism Debated Again: The Muslim Response to the Idea of Revoking the 1966 Anti-Communism in Post-Soeharto Indonesia.” Studia Islamika 13, no. 1 (January 1, 1970). https://doi.org/10.15408/sdi.v13i1.574.
———. “Communism Debated Again: The Muslim Response to the Idea of Revoking the 1966 Anti-Communism in Post-Soeharto Indonesia.” Studia Islamika 13, no. 1 (2006). https://doi.org/10.15408/sdi.v13i1.574.
Supriatma, Made. “B.J. Habibie: Presiden Peralihan, Peletak Dasar Demokrasi Indonesia.” Tirto.Id (blog), 2019. https://tirto.id/bj-habibie-presiden-peralihan-peletak-dasar-demokrasi-indonesia-ehVD.
Suryadinata, Leo. “Indonesia: Continuing Challenges and Fragile Stability.” Southeast Asian Affairs, ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institut, 2004, 87–103.
Syarif, Zainuddin, and Abd Hannan. “Islamic Populism Politics and Its Threat to Indonesian Democracy.” Al-Tahrir Jurnal Pemikiran Islam 20, no. 2 (2020): 251–77. https://doi.org/10.21154/altahrir.v20i2.2128.
Takdir, Mohammad. “Contestation and the Roles of Islam in the Public Sphere: A Sociological Analysis of Religious Secularization in Indonesia and the West.” Afkaruna 20, no. 2 (2020). https://doi.org/10.18196/aiijis.2020.0119.154-174.
Thompson, Simon. “The Regulation of Religion in Public Spaces.” Politics and Religion 16, no. 1 (2022): 27–44. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1755048322000372.
Wahid, Din. “Kembalinya Konservatisme Islam Indonesia.” Studia Islamika 21, no. 2 (November 12, 2014). https://doi.org/10.15408/sdi.v21i2.1043.
Warburton, Eve, and Edward Aspinall. “Explaining Indonesia’s Democratic Regression: Structure, Agency and Popular Opinion.” Contemporary Southeast Asia, 41, no. 2 (2019): 255–85. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26798854.
Yahya, Achmad Nasrudin, and Kristian Erdianto. “Azyumardi Azra: Pembubaran HTI Dan FPI Jadi Peristiwa Penting Dalam Sejarah Gerakan Islam Di Indonesia.” Kompas.Com (blog), 2021.
https://nasional.kompas.com/read/2021/01/15/19374191/azyumardi-azra-pembubaran-hti-dan-fpi-jadi-peristiwa-penting-dalam-sejarah.
Yilmaz, Ihsan, Whisnu Triwibowo, Hasnan Bachtiar, and Greg Barton. “Competing Populisms, Digital Technologies and the 2024 Elections in Indonesia.” European Center for Populism Studies (ECPS), January 2, 2024. https://doi.org/10.55271/pp0029.
Zulfadli, Zulfadli, and Taufani Taufani. “Kemunduran Demokrasi Dan Pelarangan Organisasi Islamis Di Era Pemerintahan Jokowi.” Potret Pemikiran 26, no. 2 (2022): 117. https://doi.org/10.30984/pp.v26i2.2033.
Published
2025-06-12
How to Cite
Krismono, K., Abdi, S., & Syahmirwan, S. (2025). Negotiating Islam, Democracy and Pluralism: Islamic Politics and the State in Post-Reform Indonesia. Mazahib, 24(1), 101-130. https://doi.org/10.21093/mj.v24i1.10078
Section
Articles
Copyright (c) 2025 Krismono Krismono, Supriyanto Abdi, Syahmirwan Syahmirwan
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
JOURNAL AFFILIATION
