The Constitutionalization of Sharia in Muslim Countries: Historical and Political Struggles in Indonesia, Türkiye, and Saudi Arabia
Keywords:
Constitutionalism, Sharia, Politics, Muslim Countries
Abstract
This study examines the complex relationship between sharia and constitutionalism in three Muslim-majority countries: Indonesia, Türkiye, and Saudi Arabia. Despite their majority Muslim population, these countries have adopted divergent approaches in integrating—or delimiting—the role of sharia within their constitutional frameworks. Drawing on interviews with legal and political scholars from each country, the research employs a comparative political-constitutional approach to analyze the dynamics of sharia constitutionalism across these distinct contexts. The findings reveal varying degrees of constitutional accommodation of sharia. Indonesia exemplifies a model of religious constitutionalism, where Islamic principles are acknowledged but not formally codified within the constitutional text. Türkiye represents a paradigm of secular constitutionalism that distinctly separates religion and state, excluding sharia from the constitutional and legal order. In contrast, Saudi Arabia exhibits a puritan constitutionalism, whereby the Quran and Hadith constitute the primary sources of constitutional authority. These contrasting models illuminate broader ideological and institutional orientations: Saudi Arabia grounds its constitutional identity in religion, Indonesia integrates certain religious principles within a pluralistic framework, and Türkiye maintains a secularist stance that confines religion to the private sphere.
References
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Ayoub, S. (2015). The Mecelle, Sharia, and the Ottoman State: Fashioning and refashioning of Islamic law in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association, 2(1), pp. 121-146.
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Findley, C. V. (2010). Turkey, Islam, nationalism, and modernity: A history, 1789-2007. Yale University Press.
Grote, Rainer, and Tilmann J. Röder, eds. Constitutionalism in Islamic countries: Between upheaval and continuity. Oxford University Press, 2012.
Gulam, H. (2016). The application of Shariah (islamic law) in some countries and its implications. Jurnal Syariah, 24(2).
Hefner, , Challenging the Secular State: The Islamization of Law in Modern Indonesia”, in Pacific Affairs, 82.4 (Winter 2009). http://www.academia.edu/3398634/Challenging_the_Secular_State_reviewed_by_Robert_Hefner. Nadirsyah Hossein, Shari’a and Constitutional Reform in Indonesia (Singapore: ISEAS, 2007).
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Imber, Colin. (1997). Ebuʾs-suʿūd: The Islamic Legal Tradition. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 221-233.
Imber, Colin. (2002). The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 258–59.
Indrayana, Denny, Indonesian Constitutional Reform 1999-2002: An Evaluation Of Constitution-Making In Transition, Jakarta: KOMPAS Book Publishing, 2008, p. 288.
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J. Lane. (1996). Constitutions And Political Theory. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
Koçak, M. (2010). Islam and national law in Turkey. Sharia incorporated: A comparative overview of the legal systems of twelve Muslim countries in the past and present, pp. 231-272.
Krysa, I. (2011). The rise of Islamism in Turkey: failure of Kamalism or a new development alternative? (Master’s thesis). Saint Mary’s University, Halifax, NS, Canada.
Kubicek, P. (2015). Political Islam & democracy in the Muslim world. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers. Nasr, S. V. R. (2005). The Rise of" Muslim Democracy". Journal of democracy, 16(2), pp. 13-27.
Kubicek, P. (2015). Political Islam & democracy in the Muslim world. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
Landau, J. (Ed.). (1984). Atatürk and the Modernization of Turkey. Leiden: Brill / Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Lebreton, Gilles. (2005). Libertés publiques & droits de l'homme, Paris : Dalloz, pp. 58-66.
Lerner, Hanna. (2013). "Permissive constitutions, democracy, and religious freedom in India, Indonesia, Israel, and Turkey." World Politics 65.4: pp. 609-655.
Lewis, Bernard, The Emergence of Modern Turkey (London: Oxford University Press, 1961), 264-265.
Lewis, Bernard. (1994). "Why Turkey is the only Muslim democracy." Middle East Quarterly 1.1: pp. 41-49.
Liddle, R. W., & Mujani, S. (2013). Indonesian democracy: From transition to consolidation. In Democracy and Islam in Indonesia (pp. 24-50). Columbia University Press.
Lombardi, C. B. (2013). Designing Islamic constitutions: Past trends and options for a democratic future. International Journal of Constitutional Law, 11(3), pp. 615-645.
Marks, Monica L. (2014)., Convince, Coerce, or Compromise? Ennahda’s Approach To Tunisia’s Constitution, Foreign Policy, The Brookings Institution, Massachusetts Avenue, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20036 U.S.A. www.brookings.edu.
Masmaliyeva, T. (2024). Turkish Secularism: How to Raise Its Level of Protection. Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland AG.
Mietzner, M. (2009). Military politics, Islam, and the state in Indonesia: from turbulent transition to democratic consolidation. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.
Mufida, et.al., (2024). Islamic Law and the Blasphemy Debate in Contemporary Indonesia. AHKAM: Jurnal Ilmu Syariah, 24(2).https://doi.org/10.15408/ajis.v24i2.41287
Müftüler-Baç, M., & Keyman, E. F. (2012). Turkey under the AKP: the era of dominant-party politics. Journal of Democracy, 23(1), pp. 85-99.
Nadia, Nadir, “Sistem Pemerintahan dan Kebijakan Luar Negeri Arab Saudi”, Qaumiyyah: Jurnal Hukum Tata Negara, Vol.1, No.2, 2020, pp. 166-167
Örücü, Esin. (2013). "A Legal System Based on Translation: The Turkish Experience," Journal of Civil Law Studies 6, no. 2: 445–471.
Peker, A. U. (2002). Western influences on the Ottoman Empire and Occidentalism in the architecture of Istanbul. Eighteenth-century life, 26(3), pp. 139-163.
Ramsaur Jr, Ernest Edmondson. (1957). The Young Turks: Prelude to the Revolution of 1908 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Rentz, G. (2019). The Saudi Monarchy. In King Faisal and the Modernisation of Saudi Arabia (pp. 15-34). Routledge.
Rubin, A. (2022). The Positivization of Ottoman Law and the Question of Continuity. In State Law and Legal Positivism: The Global Rise of a New Paradigm (pp. 150-177). Brill.
Saleem, R. M. A. (2017). State, Nationalism, and Islamization: Historical Analysis of Turkey and Pakistan. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan / Springer Nature AG.
Salim, A. (2014). The Constitutionalization of Shari’a in Muslim Societies: Comparing Indonesia, Tunisia, and Egypt. In The Sociology of Shari’a: Case Studies from around the World (pp. 199-217). Cham: Springer International Publishing.
Salim, A. (2008). Challenging The Secular State: The Islamization of Law in Modern Indonesia. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, pp. 85-86.
Satya Arinanto, “Piagam Jakarta dan Cita-cita Negara Islam” in Kurniawan Zein & Sarifuddin HA (eds.), Syariat Islam Yes Syariat Islam No (Jakarta: Paramadina, 2001), pp. 57-58.
Schneier, Edward. (2015). Muslim Democracy: Politics, religion and society in Indonesia, Turkey and the Islamic world. Routledge.
Sevinc, K., Hood Jr, R. W., & Coleman III, T. J. (2017). Secularism in Turkey. In P. Zuckerman & J. Shook (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Secularism (pp. 155-171). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Seznec, Jean-Francois. "Democratization in the Arab World? Stirrings in Saudi Arabia." Journal of Democracy 13.4 (2002): pp. 33-40.
Sooyler, M. (2015). The Turkish deep state: State consolidation, civil-military relations and democracy. Routledge.
Suanzes-Carpegna, Joaquín Varela, L'histoire Constitutionnelle Comparée: étapes et modèle, 20 juillet 2010 à la ville de Tunis, à l'Académie Internationale de Droit Constitutionnel et dans le cadre d'un cours plus ample sur "Problèmes méthodologiques de l'Histoire Constitutionnelle". Traduction de l'espagnol de Marie-Angèle Orobon (Université de la Sorbonne Nouvelle-Paris III), pp. 31-43.
Sandje, Rodrigue Ngando. (2013). État et nation dans le constitutionnalisme africain: étude thématique, Université de Bourgogne.
Taufiqurrohman, A.H.A., et.al., (2024). The Role of Islamic Law, Constitution, and Culture in Democracy in the UAE and Indonesia. AHKAM: Jurnal Ilmu Syariah, 24(1). https://doi.org//10.15408/ajis.v24i1.33155
Tausch, Arno. (2021). "Saudi Arabia—Religion, gender, and the desire for democracy." The Future of the Gulf Region: Value Change and Global Cycles. Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 331-369.
Tögel, Akif. (2021). "Constitutional Change in Turkey: Is a New Amendment Necessary?" Legal Hukuk Dergisi 224: pp. 3567-3596.
Ulum, Bahrul and Arifullah, Mohd. Arifullah, (2024). Contextualizing Fiqh al-Siyāsah in Indonesia: A Proposed Typology of Islamic Populism. AHKAM: Jurnal Ilmu Syariah, 24(2). https://doi.org//10.15408/ajis.v24i2.37747
V. L. Ménage and Colin Imber. (1967). Ottoman Historical Documents: The Institutions of an Empire. London: School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London.
Yilmaz, I., & Bashirov, G. (2018). The AKP after 15 years: Emergence of Erdoganism in Turkey. Third World Quarterly, 39(9), pp. 1812-1830.
Zachary Abuza. (2007). Political Islam and Violence in Indonesia, London and New York: Routledge.
Zada, Khamami, et al. (2022). "Muslim Youth Under Sharia Regime in Aceh: From Accommodation to Resistance." AL-IHKAM: Jurnal Hukum & Pranata Sosial 17.2: pp. 412-433.
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Interview
Interview with Abdul Aziz, 10 July 2024, Mecca, Arab Saudi
Interview with Ismail Cebeci, 11 July 2024, Marmara University, Türkiye
Interview with Nasrullah Jasam, 9 September 2025, Jakarta, Indonesia
Interview with Iman Ni'matullah, 12 September 2025, Mecca, Arab Saudi
Interview with Rumadi, 12 October 2024 Jakarta, Indonesia
Interview with Sami Erdem, 11 July 2024, Marmara University, Türkiye
Interview with Stéphane Lacroix, 10 September 2024, Jakarta, Indonesia
Interview with Talip Küçükcan, 11 May 2024, Jakarta, Indonesia
Arlis, Arlis, and Neni Yuherlis. "The Intensity of The Constitution According to Dustur Saudi Arabia." As-Siyasi 2.2 (2022): pp. 219-246.
Armia, M. S. (2018). Implementing Islamic Constitutionalism: How Islamic Is Indonesia's Constitution?. Al-'Adalah, 15(2), pp. 437-450.
Aspinall, E. (2013). Popular agency and interests in Indonesia's democratic transition and consolidation. Indonesia, (96), pp. 101-121.
Ayoub, S. (2015). The Mecelle, Sharia, and the Ottoman State: Fashioning and refashioning Islamic law in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association, 2(1), pp. 121-146.
Ayoub, S. A. (2019). Law, empire, and the Sultan: Ottoman imperial authority and late Hanafî jurisprudence. Oxford University Press.
Ayoub, S. (2015). The Mecelle, Sharia, and the Ottoman State: Fashioning and refashioning of Islamic law in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association, 2(1), pp. 121-146.
Bahtiar Effendy, Islam dan Negara: Transformasi Pemikiran dan Praktik Politik Islam di Indonesia (Jakarta: Paramadina, 1998), pp. 89-90.
Bernard-Maugiron, Nathalie, La place de la charia dans la hiérarchie des normes, dans Bououin Dupret, La charia aujourd'hui: Usage de la référence au droit islamique, Paris La Découverte, 3 2012, pp. 51-58.
Bottoni, R. (2007). The origins of secularism in Turkey. Ecclesiastical Law Journal, 9(2), pp. 175-186.
Bozdoğan, S., & Kasaba, R. (Eds.). (1997). Rethinking modernity and national identity in Turkey (Vol. 7). University of Washington Press.
Cizre-Sakallioglu, U., & Cinar, M. (2003). Turkey 2002: Kemalism, Islamism, and politics in the light of the February 28 process. The South Atlantic Quarterly, 102(2), pp. 309-332.
Davison, Roderic H. (1963). Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856–1876, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, pp. 358-408
Dehousse, Renaud, Naissance d'un konstitusionalisme transnasional , Paris: éditions du seuil, 2001. http://spire.sciencespo.fr/hdl:/ (Halaman konsultasi pada 28 Mars 2016).
Dupret, B. (2016). The Relationship between Constitutions, Politics, and Islam: A Comparative Analysis. Constitutionalism, Human Rights and Islam after the Arab Spring (R. Grote et al., eds., Oxford University Press).
El-Sayed, Ahmed, (2014). “Post-Revolution Constitutionalism: The Impact of Drafting Processes on the Constitutional Documents in Tunisia and Egypt”, Electronic Journal of Islamic and Middle Eastern Law, Vol. 2. University of Zurich, Switzerland, pp. 44-45.
Erisen, C., & Kubicek, P. (Eds.). (2016). Democratic consolidation in Turkey: Micro and macro challenges. Routledge.
Fedtke, Jörg. (2014). Directorate-General for External Policies of the Union, In-Depth Analysis, Comparative Analysis Between the Constitutional Processes in Egypt and Tunisia - Lessons Learnt, Overview of the Constitutional Situation in Libya, Belgium: Directorate B Policy Department European Union.
Feldman, Jean-Philippe, Pemisahan des pouvoirs dan konstitusionalisme; mitos dan 7 realitas doktrin dan kritiknya, VIIe Congrès français de droit Constitutionnel, AFDC, Paris, 25-27 September 2016 https://repozytorium.amu.edu.pl/handle/ http://www.droitconstitutionnel.org/ kongresParis/comC6/FeldmanTXT.pdf.
Feroze, M. R. (1962). Family laws of the Turkish republic. Islamic Studies, 1(2), pp. 131-147.
Findley, C. V. (2010). Turkey, Islam, nationalism, and modernity: A history, 1789-2007. Yale University Press.
Grote, Rainer, and Tilmann J. Röder, eds. Constitutionalism in Islamic countries: Between upheaval and continuity. Oxford University Press, 2012.
Gulam, H. (2016). The application of Shariah (islamic law) in some countries and its implications. Jurnal Syariah, 24(2).
Hefner, , Challenging the Secular State: The Islamization of Law in Modern Indonesia”, in Pacific Affairs, 82.4 (Winter 2009). http://www.academia.edu/3398634/Challenging_the_Secular_State_reviewed_by_Robert_Hefner. Nadirsyah Hossein, Shari’a and Constitutional Reform in Indonesia (Singapore: ISEAS, 2007).
Hosen, N. (2007). Shari'a & constitutional reform in Indonesia. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. Hosen, N. (2005). Religion and the Indonesian constitution: a recent debate. Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 36(3).
Imber, Colin. (1997). Ebuʾs-suʿūd: The Islamic Legal Tradition. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 221-233.
Imber, Colin. (2002). The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 258–59.
Indrayana, Denny, Indonesian Constitutional Reform 1999-2002: An Evaluation Of Constitution-Making In Transition, Jakarta: KOMPAS Book Publishing, 2008, p. 288.
Ismail, R., Lai, Y. M., Ayub, Z. A., Ahmad, A. R., & Wan, C. D. (2016). Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. In Higher education in the Middle East and North Africa: exploring regional and country-specific potentials (pp. 127-146). Singapore: Springer Singapore.
J. Lane. (1996). Constitutions And Political Theory. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
Koçak, M. (2010). Islam and national law in Turkey. Sharia incorporated: A comparative overview of the legal systems of twelve Muslim countries in the past and present, pp. 231-272.
Krysa, I. (2011). The rise of Islamism in Turkey: failure of Kamalism or a new development alternative? (Master’s thesis). Saint Mary’s University, Halifax, NS, Canada.
Kubicek, P. (2015). Political Islam & democracy in the Muslim world. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers. Nasr, S. V. R. (2005). The Rise of" Muslim Democracy". Journal of democracy, 16(2), pp. 13-27.
Kubicek, P. (2015). Political Islam & democracy in the Muslim world. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
Landau, J. (Ed.). (1984). Atatürk and the Modernization of Turkey. Leiden: Brill / Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Lebreton, Gilles. (2005). Libertés publiques & droits de l'homme, Paris : Dalloz, pp. 58-66.
Lerner, Hanna. (2013). "Permissive constitutions, democracy, and religious freedom in India, Indonesia, Israel, and Turkey." World Politics 65.4: pp. 609-655.
Lewis, Bernard, The Emergence of Modern Turkey (London: Oxford University Press, 1961), 264-265.
Lewis, Bernard. (1994). "Why Turkey is the only Muslim democracy." Middle East Quarterly 1.1: pp. 41-49.
Liddle, R. W., & Mujani, S. (2013). Indonesian democracy: From transition to consolidation. In Democracy and Islam in Indonesia (pp. 24-50). Columbia University Press.
Lombardi, C. B. (2013). Designing Islamic constitutions: Past trends and options for a democratic future. International Journal of Constitutional Law, 11(3), pp. 615-645.
Marks, Monica L. (2014)., Convince, Coerce, or Compromise? Ennahda’s Approach To Tunisia’s Constitution, Foreign Policy, The Brookings Institution, Massachusetts Avenue, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20036 U.S.A. www.brookings.edu.
Masmaliyeva, T. (2024). Turkish Secularism: How to Raise Its Level of Protection. Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland AG.
Mietzner, M. (2009). Military politics, Islam, and the state in Indonesia: from turbulent transition to democratic consolidation. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.
Mufida, et.al., (2024). Islamic Law and the Blasphemy Debate in Contemporary Indonesia. AHKAM: Jurnal Ilmu Syariah, 24(2).https://doi.org/10.15408/ajis.v24i2.41287
Müftüler-Baç, M., & Keyman, E. F. (2012). Turkey under the AKP: the era of dominant-party politics. Journal of Democracy, 23(1), pp. 85-99.
Nadia, Nadir, “Sistem Pemerintahan dan Kebijakan Luar Negeri Arab Saudi”, Qaumiyyah: Jurnal Hukum Tata Negara, Vol.1, No.2, 2020, pp. 166-167
Örücü, Esin. (2013). "A Legal System Based on Translation: The Turkish Experience," Journal of Civil Law Studies 6, no. 2: 445–471.
Peker, A. U. (2002). Western influences on the Ottoman Empire and Occidentalism in the architecture of Istanbul. Eighteenth-century life, 26(3), pp. 139-163.
Ramsaur Jr, Ernest Edmondson. (1957). The Young Turks: Prelude to the Revolution of 1908 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Rentz, G. (2019). The Saudi Monarchy. In King Faisal and the Modernisation of Saudi Arabia (pp. 15-34). Routledge.
Rubin, A. (2022). The Positivization of Ottoman Law and the Question of Continuity. In State Law and Legal Positivism: The Global Rise of a New Paradigm (pp. 150-177). Brill.
Saleem, R. M. A. (2017). State, Nationalism, and Islamization: Historical Analysis of Turkey and Pakistan. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan / Springer Nature AG.
Salim, A. (2014). The Constitutionalization of Shari’a in Muslim Societies: Comparing Indonesia, Tunisia, and Egypt. In The Sociology of Shari’a: Case Studies from around the World (pp. 199-217). Cham: Springer International Publishing.
Salim, A. (2008). Challenging The Secular State: The Islamization of Law in Modern Indonesia. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, pp. 85-86.
Satya Arinanto, “Piagam Jakarta dan Cita-cita Negara Islam” in Kurniawan Zein & Sarifuddin HA (eds.), Syariat Islam Yes Syariat Islam No (Jakarta: Paramadina, 2001), pp. 57-58.
Schneier, Edward. (2015). Muslim Democracy: Politics, religion and society in Indonesia, Turkey and the Islamic world. Routledge.
Sevinc, K., Hood Jr, R. W., & Coleman III, T. J. (2017). Secularism in Turkey. In P. Zuckerman & J. Shook (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Secularism (pp. 155-171). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Seznec, Jean-Francois. "Democratization in the Arab World? Stirrings in Saudi Arabia." Journal of Democracy 13.4 (2002): pp. 33-40.
Sooyler, M. (2015). The Turkish deep state: State consolidation, civil-military relations and democracy. Routledge.
Suanzes-Carpegna, Joaquín Varela, L'histoire Constitutionnelle Comparée: étapes et modèle, 20 juillet 2010 à la ville de Tunis, à l'Académie Internationale de Droit Constitutionnel et dans le cadre d'un cours plus ample sur "Problèmes méthodologiques de l'Histoire Constitutionnelle". Traduction de l'espagnol de Marie-Angèle Orobon (Université de la Sorbonne Nouvelle-Paris III), pp. 31-43.
Sandje, Rodrigue Ngando. (2013). État et nation dans le constitutionnalisme africain: étude thématique, Université de Bourgogne.
Taufiqurrohman, A.H.A., et.al., (2024). The Role of Islamic Law, Constitution, and Culture in Democracy in the UAE and Indonesia. AHKAM: Jurnal Ilmu Syariah, 24(1). https://doi.org//10.15408/ajis.v24i1.33155
Tausch, Arno. (2021). "Saudi Arabia—Religion, gender, and the desire for democracy." The Future of the Gulf Region: Value Change and Global Cycles. Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 331-369.
Tögel, Akif. (2021). "Constitutional Change in Turkey: Is a New Amendment Necessary?" Legal Hukuk Dergisi 224: pp. 3567-3596.
Ulum, Bahrul and Arifullah, Mohd. Arifullah, (2024). Contextualizing Fiqh al-Siyāsah in Indonesia: A Proposed Typology of Islamic Populism. AHKAM: Jurnal Ilmu Syariah, 24(2). https://doi.org//10.15408/ajis.v24i2.37747
V. L. Ménage and Colin Imber. (1967). Ottoman Historical Documents: The Institutions of an Empire. London: School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London.
Yilmaz, I., & Bashirov, G. (2018). The AKP after 15 years: Emergence of Erdoganism in Turkey. Third World Quarterly, 39(9), pp. 1812-1830.
Zachary Abuza. (2007). Political Islam and Violence in Indonesia, London and New York: Routledge.
Zada, Khamami, et al. (2022). "Muslim Youth Under Sharia Regime in Aceh: From Accommodation to Resistance." AL-IHKAM: Jurnal Hukum & Pranata Sosial 17.2: pp. 412-433.
Zada, Khamami. (2023). "Sharia and Islamic state in Indonesia constitutional democracy: an Aceh experience." Ijtihad: Jurnal Wacana Hukum Islam Dan Kemanusiaan 23.1: pp. 1-17.
Zürcher, Erik J., Turkey: A Modern History (London: I.B. Tauris, 1993), pp. 181-183.
Interview
Interview with Abdul Aziz, 10 July 2024, Mecca, Arab Saudi
Interview with Ismail Cebeci, 11 July 2024, Marmara University, Türkiye
Interview with Nasrullah Jasam, 9 September 2025, Jakarta, Indonesia
Interview with Iman Ni'matullah, 12 September 2025, Mecca, Arab Saudi
Interview with Rumadi, 12 October 2024 Jakarta, Indonesia
Interview with Sami Erdem, 11 July 2024, Marmara University, Türkiye
Interview with Stéphane Lacroix, 10 September 2024, Jakarta, Indonesia
Interview with Talip Küçükcan, 11 May 2024, Jakarta, Indonesia
Published
2025-12-25
How to Cite
Zada, K., Faizin, A., Abdillah, A., Hifni, A., & Wahyudi, J. (2025). The Constitutionalization of Sharia in Muslim Countries: Historical and Political Struggles in Indonesia, Türkiye, and Saudi Arabia. Mazahib, 24(2), 435-455. https://doi.org/10.21093/mj.v24i2.11679
Section
Articles
Copyright (c) 2025 Khamami Zada, Afwan Faizin, Akhmad Mughzi Abdillah, Ahmad Hifni, Johan Wahyudi
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
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