Islam, Islamic Law and Constitution Making: International and Domestic Engagement in the Constitution-Making Process in Afghanistan
Abstract
The making of the 2004 Constitution was a significant moment amidst the continuing conflicts in Afghanistan. It was an attempt to transform differences and conflicts into a shared agenda for the future of the country. The process of constitution-making in Afghanistan was marked by intense negotiations between the international community and actors, on the one hand, and domestic actors, on the other. The outcome would be called a “win-win solution”. This essay focuses on the making of the Islam-related clauses: How was the public participation? How has the negotiation been undertaken? What was the result and why? This essay is an attempt to answer those questions. It will argue that the process of constitution-making in Afghanistan particularly with regard to the Islam clauses is the acts of negotiations between different competing actors. The Constitution is the product of negotiations not only between international and domestic actors, but also between domestic actors. As evident in the making of the Islam clauses, these negotiations might be characterized as between puritan Islamist and more moderate Muslim actors.
Keywords: constitution-making, Afghanistan, the 2004 Constitution, Islam clauses, Islamic.
References
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Arjomand, Said Amir. “Constitutional Developments in Afghanistan: A Comparative and Historical Perspective.” Drake Law Review, Vol. 53, 2005.
Baderin, Mashood A. International Human Rights and Islamic Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009.
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Decree of the President of the Islamic Transitional State of Afghanistan on the Convening of the Constitutional Loya Jirga, 24/04/1382. 15 July 2003. https://www.refworld.org/docid/5b27b20f4.html.
(Draft) Constitution of Afghanistan Year 1382. http://www.constitution.org/cons/afghan/draft_cons_eng.htm.
Elkins, Zachary, Tom Ginsburg and James Melton. “Baghdad, Tokyo, Kabul… Constitution Making in Occupied States.” William and Mary Law Review, Vol. 49, No. 4, 2008.
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Feldman, Noah. “Imposed Constitutionalism.” Connecticut Law Review. Vol. 37, No. 4, 2005.
Fundamental Principles (Constitution) of the Kingdom of Afghanistan (Nizamnamah-ye-Asasi-e-Daulat-e-Aliyah-e-Afghanistan). April 9, 1923 (20 Hamal 1302) Amended January 28, 1925 (8 Dalw 1303). http://www.afghanistantranslation.com/Constitutions/Constitution_1923-1302_ET.htm#_APPENDIX_B>.
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Ghai, Yash. “A Journey around Constitutions: Reflections on Contemporary Constitutions.” South African Law Journal. Vol. 122, No. 4, 2005.
Goodson, Larry P. “The Lessons of Nation-Building in Afghanistan.” In Francis Fukuyama (ed.). Nation-Building: Beyond Afghanistan and Iraq. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006.
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International Crisis Group. “Afghanistan’s Flawed Constitutional Process.” ICG Asia Report No 56. Kabul/Brussels: 12 June 2003. https://d2071andvip0wj.cloudfront.net/56-afghanistan-s-flawed-constitutional-process.pdf.
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Kamali, Mohammad Hashim. “Islam and its Shari’a in the Afghan Constitution 2004 with Special Reference to Personal Law.” In Nadjma Yassari (ed.). The Shari‘a in the Constitutions of Afghanistan, Iran and Egypt – Implications for Private Law. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2005
Kamali, Mohammad Hashim. Afghanistan’s Constitution Ten Years On: What are the Issues? Kabul: AREU, 2014.
Kamali, Mohammad Hashim. Law in Afghanistan: A Study of the Constitutions, Matrimonial Law and the Judiciary. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1985.
Kamali, Mohammad Hashim. “References to Islam and Women in the Afghan Constitution.” Arab Law Quarterly. Vol. 22, 2008.
Khan, M A Muqtedar (ed.). Islamic Democratic Discourse: Theory, Debates and Philosophical Perspectives. Lanham: Lexington Books, 2006.
Kurzman, Charles (ed.). Liberal Islam: A Source Book. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.
Law, David S. “The Myth of the Imposed Constitution.” in Denis J. Galligan and Mila Versteeg (eds.). Social and Political Foundations of Constitutions. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013.
McCool, Carolyn. “The Role of Constitution-Building Processes in Democratization: Case Study Afghanistan.” International IDEA Democracy-building & Conflict Management (DCM), 2004.
Misdaq, Nabi. Afghanistan: Political Frailty and Foreign Interference. London and New York: Routledge, 2006.
Order of the President of the Islamic Transitional State of Afghanistan on the Rules of Procedure of the Constitutional Loya Jirga. No 4913, 16/09/1382. November 2003. http://www.unama-afg.org/docs/_nonUN%20Docs/_Loya-Jirga/CLJ/rules%20of%20procedure.doc.
Pasarlay, Shamshad. “Making the 2004 Constitution of Afghanistan: A History and Analysis Through the Lens of Coordination and Deferral Theory.” PhD Dissertation. University of Washington, 2016.
Pasarlay, Shamshad. “Rethinking Afghanistan’s Longest-Lived Constitution: The 1931 Constitution Through the Lens of Constitutional Endurance and Performance Literature.” Elon Law Review, Vol. 10, 2018.
Rasanayagam, Angelo. Afghanistan a Modern History: Monarchy, Despotism or Democracy? The Problems of Governance in the Muslim Tradition. London and New York: I.B. Tauris, 2003.
Roy, Olivier. Islam and Resistance in Afghanistan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
Rubin, Barnett R. “Crafting a Constitution for Afghanistan.” Journal of Democracy. Vol. 15, No. 3, 2004.
Saeed. Abdullah. Human Rights and Islam: An Introduction to Key Debates between Islamic Law and International Human Rights Law. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2018.
Schoiswohl, Michael. “Linking the International Legal Framework to Building the Formal Foundations of a “State at Risk”: Constitution-Making and International Law in Post-Conflict Afghanistan.” Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law. Vol. 39, 2006.
Secretariat Constitutional Review Commission. “Public Consultation Strategy.” http://constitutionnet.org/sites/default/files/public_consultation_strategy..pdf.
Shaltūt, Maḥmūd. al-Islām ‘Aqīdah wa Sharī’ah. Kuwait: Dār al-Qalam, 1980.
The Constitution of Afghanistan, (ratified) 26 January 2004. http://www.afghanembassy.com.pl/afg/images/pliki/TheConstitution.pdf.
“The Constitutional Process.” http://www.unama-afg.org/docs/_nonUN%20Docs/_Loya-Jirga/CLJ/Draft%20Constitution%20Factsheet.doc.
The Secretariat of the Constitutional Commission of Afghanistan. “The Constitution-making Process in Afghanistan.” 10 March 2003. http://www.afghandata.org:8080/xmlui/handle/azu/15302.
Thier, J Alexander. “The Making of a Constitution in Afghanistan.” New York Law School Law Review. Vol. 51, 2006/7.
Travis, Hannibal. “Freedom or Theocracy?: Constitutionalism in Afghanistan and Iraq.” Northwestern University Journal of International Human Rights. Vol. 3, 2005.
Ussole Assasi (The Main Principles) Government of Afghanistan, Published 3 Jadi 1311 (13 December 1932). http://www.afghanistantranslation.com/Constitutions/Constitution_1931-1310_ET_CSTC-A.htm.
Wardak, Ali. “Jirga – A Traditional Mechanism of Conflict Resolution in Afghanistan.” https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/e1bb/262269286e0c4744de97acf614686b4a49e6.pdf.
Zakhilwal, Omar and Adeena Niazi. “The Warlords Win in Kabul.” The New York Times (nytimes.com). 21 June 2002.
Abou El Fadl, Khaled. The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists. New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 2005.
Afghanistan Constitutional Reform Resources, Center on International Cooperation, New York University. https://cic.nyu.edu/afghanistan-constitutional-reform-resources.
Agreement on Provisional Arrangements in Afghanistan Pending the Re-establishment of Permanent Government Institutions, UN Doc S/2001/1154 (5 December 2001), https://peacemaker.un.org/sites/peacemaker.un.org/files/AF_011205_AgreementProvisionalArrangementsinAfghanistan%28en%29.pdf.
Arjomand, Saïd Amir and Kim Lane Scheppele. “Constitutional Court for Afghanistan.” In Afghanistan: Towards a New Constitution. Center on International Cooperation, New York University, 2003.
Arjomand, Saïd Amir. ‘The Role of Religion and the Hanafi and Ja’fari Jurisprudence in the New Constitution of Afghanistan.” In Afghanistan: Towards a New Constitution. Center on International Cooperation, New York University, 2003.
Arjomand, Said Amir. “Constitutional Developments in Afghanistan: A Comparative and Historical Perspective.” Drake Law Review, Vol. 53, 2005.
Baderin, Mashood A. International Human Rights and Islamic Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009.
Bonnet, Manon. “The Legitimacy of Internationally Imposed Constitution-Making in the Context of State Building.” In Richard Albert, Xenophon Contiades and Alkmene Fotiadou (eds.). The Law and Legitimacy of Imposed Constitutions. London and New York: Routledge, 2019.
Brunet, Ariane and Isabelle Solon Helal. “Seizing an Opportunity: Afghan Women and the Constitution-Making Process.” Rights & Democracy Mission Report May-June 2003. http://www.afghandata.org:8080/xmlui/bitstream/handle/azu/15261/azu_acku_pamphlet_hq1735_6_b78_2003_w.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.
Chesterman, Simon. You, the People: The United Nations, Transitional Administration, and State-Building. Oxford: Oxford University press, 2005.
Constitution of Afghanistan, 9 Meezan 1343 (1 October 1964. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1005&context=afghanenglish.
Decree of the President of the Islamic Transitional State of Afghanistan on the Convening of the Constitutional Loya Jirga, 24/04/1382. 15 July 2003. https://www.refworld.org/docid/5b27b20f4.html.
(Draft) Constitution of Afghanistan Year 1382. http://www.constitution.org/cons/afghan/draft_cons_eng.htm.
Elkins, Zachary, Tom Ginsburg and James Melton. “Baghdad, Tokyo, Kabul… Constitution Making in Occupied States.” William and Mary Law Review, Vol. 49, No. 4, 2008.
Feldman, Noah. “A New Democracy, Enshrined in Faith.” The New York Times (nytimes.com). 13 November 2003.
Feldman, Noah. “Imposed Constitutionalism.” Connecticut Law Review. Vol. 37, No. 4, 2005.
Fundamental Principles (Constitution) of the Kingdom of Afghanistan (Nizamnamah-ye-Asasi-e-Daulat-e-Aliyah-e-Afghanistan). April 9, 1923 (20 Hamal 1302) Amended January 28, 1925 (8 Dalw 1303). http://www.afghanistantranslation.com/Constitutions/Constitution_1923-1302_ET.htm#_APPENDIX_B>.
Gall, Carlotta. ‘Traditional Council Elects Karzai as Afghan President.” The New York Times (nytimes.com). 14 June 2002.
Gall, Carlotta. “Afghan Council Gives Approval to Constitution.” The New York Times (nytimes.com). 5 January 2004.
Gall, Carlotta. “Afghans Gather to Choose Grand Council.” The New York Times (nytimes.com). 3 June 2002.
Ghai, Yash. “A Journey around Constitutions: Reflections on Contemporary Constitutions.” South African Law Journal. Vol. 122, No. 4, 2005.
Goodson, Larry P. “The Lessons of Nation-Building in Afghanistan.” In Francis Fukuyama (ed.). Nation-Building: Beyond Afghanistan and Iraq. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006.
Haress, Ghizaal. Judicial Review in Afghanistan: A Flawed Practice. Kabul: AREU, 2017.
Hashemi, Nader. “Islam and Democracy.” In John L. Esposito and Emad El-Din Shahin (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Islam and Politics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.
Hosen, Nadirsyah. Shari’a & Constitutional Reform in Indonesia. Singapore: ISEAS, 2007.
Human Rights Watch. “Afghanistan’s Bonn Agreement One Year Later: A Catalog of Missed Opportunities.” 5 December 2003, https://www.hrw.org/legacy/backgrounder/asia/afghanistan/bonn1yr-bck.pdf.
Impromptu Remarks by the Special Representative of the Secretary-General, Lakhdar Brahimi, at the Closing Ceremony of the Constitutional Loya Jirga (2004). http://www.unama-afg.org/news/_statement/SRSG/2004/04jan04.htm.
Institute for War and Peace Reporting. “Afghan Recovery Report.” http://iwpr.net/?p=arr&s=p&o=-&apc_state=heniarr2003.
International Crisis Group. “Afghanistan: The Constitutional Loya Jirga.” Afghanistan Briefing. Kabul/Brussels, 12 December 2003. https://d2071andvip0wj.cloudfront.net/afghanistan-the-constitutional-loya-jirga.pdf.
International Crisis Group. “Afghanistan: Women and Reconstruction.” ICG Asia Report N 48. Kabul/Brussels, 14 March 2003. https://d2071andvip0wj.cloudfront.net/48-afghanistan-women-and-reconstruction.pdf.
International Crisis Group. “Afghanistan’s Flawed Constitutional Process.” ICG Asia Report No 56. Kabul/Brussels: 12 June 2003. https://d2071andvip0wj.cloudfront.net/56-afghanistan-s-flawed-constitutional-process.pdf.
International Crisis Group. “The Afghan Transitional Administration: Prospects and Perils.” Afghanistan Briefing. Kabul/Brussels, 30 July 2002. https://d2071andvip0wj.cloudfront.net/the-afghan-transitional-administration-prospects-and-perils.pdf.
International Crisis Group. “The Loya Jirga: One Small Step Forward?” Afghanistan Briefing, Kabul/Brussels, 16 May 2002. https://d2071andvip0wj.cloudfront.net/the-loya-jirga-one-small-step-forward.pdf.
Kamali, Mohammad Hashim. ‘The Islamic State: Origins, Definition and Salient Attributes.” In K S Nathan and Mohammad Hashim Kamali (eds.). Islam in Southeast Asia: Political, Social and Strategic Challenges for the 21st Century. Singapore: ISEAS-Yusof Ishak Institute, 2006.
Kamali, Mohammad Hashim. “Islam and its Shari’a in the Afghan Constitution 2004 with Special Reference to Personal Law.” In Nadjma Yassari (ed.). The Shari‘a in the Constitutions of Afghanistan, Iran and Egypt – Implications for Private Law. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2005
Kamali, Mohammad Hashim. Afghanistan’s Constitution Ten Years On: What are the Issues? Kabul: AREU, 2014.
Kamali, Mohammad Hashim. Law in Afghanistan: A Study of the Constitutions, Matrimonial Law and the Judiciary. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1985.
Kamali, Mohammad Hashim. “References to Islam and Women in the Afghan Constitution.” Arab Law Quarterly. Vol. 22, 2008.
Khan, M A Muqtedar (ed.). Islamic Democratic Discourse: Theory, Debates and Philosophical Perspectives. Lanham: Lexington Books, 2006.
Kurzman, Charles (ed.). Liberal Islam: A Source Book. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.
Law, David S. “The Myth of the Imposed Constitution.” in Denis J. Galligan and Mila Versteeg (eds.). Social and Political Foundations of Constitutions. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013.
McCool, Carolyn. “The Role of Constitution-Building Processes in Democratization: Case Study Afghanistan.” International IDEA Democracy-building & Conflict Management (DCM), 2004.
Misdaq, Nabi. Afghanistan: Political Frailty and Foreign Interference. London and New York: Routledge, 2006.
Order of the President of the Islamic Transitional State of Afghanistan on the Rules of Procedure of the Constitutional Loya Jirga. No 4913, 16/09/1382. November 2003. http://www.unama-afg.org/docs/_nonUN%20Docs/_Loya-Jirga/CLJ/rules%20of%20procedure.doc.
Pasarlay, Shamshad. “Making the 2004 Constitution of Afghanistan: A History and Analysis Through the Lens of Coordination and Deferral Theory.” PhD Dissertation. University of Washington, 2016.
Pasarlay, Shamshad. “Rethinking Afghanistan’s Longest-Lived Constitution: The 1931 Constitution Through the Lens of Constitutional Endurance and Performance Literature.” Elon Law Review, Vol. 10, 2018.
Rasanayagam, Angelo. Afghanistan a Modern History: Monarchy, Despotism or Democracy? The Problems of Governance in the Muslim Tradition. London and New York: I.B. Tauris, 2003.
Roy, Olivier. Islam and Resistance in Afghanistan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
Rubin, Barnett R. “Crafting a Constitution for Afghanistan.” Journal of Democracy. Vol. 15, No. 3, 2004.
Saeed. Abdullah. Human Rights and Islam: An Introduction to Key Debates between Islamic Law and International Human Rights Law. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2018.
Schoiswohl, Michael. “Linking the International Legal Framework to Building the Formal Foundations of a “State at Risk”: Constitution-Making and International Law in Post-Conflict Afghanistan.” Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law. Vol. 39, 2006.
Secretariat Constitutional Review Commission. “Public Consultation Strategy.” http://constitutionnet.org/sites/default/files/public_consultation_strategy..pdf.
Shaltūt, Maḥmūd. al-Islām ‘Aqīdah wa Sharī’ah. Kuwait: Dār al-Qalam, 1980.
The Constitution of Afghanistan, (ratified) 26 January 2004. http://www.afghanembassy.com.pl/afg/images/pliki/TheConstitution.pdf.
“The Constitutional Process.” http://www.unama-afg.org/docs/_nonUN%20Docs/_Loya-Jirga/CLJ/Draft%20Constitution%20Factsheet.doc.
The Secretariat of the Constitutional Commission of Afghanistan. “The Constitution-making Process in Afghanistan.” 10 March 2003. http://www.afghandata.org:8080/xmlui/handle/azu/15302.
Thier, J Alexander. “The Making of a Constitution in Afghanistan.” New York Law School Law Review. Vol. 51, 2006/7.
Travis, Hannibal. “Freedom or Theocracy?: Constitutionalism in Afghanistan and Iraq.” Northwestern University Journal of International Human Rights. Vol. 3, 2005.
Ussole Assasi (The Main Principles) Government of Afghanistan, Published 3 Jadi 1311 (13 December 1932). http://www.afghanistantranslation.com/Constitutions/Constitution_1931-1310_ET_CSTC-A.htm.
Wardak, Ali. “Jirga – A Traditional Mechanism of Conflict Resolution in Afghanistan.” https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/e1bb/262269286e0c4744de97acf614686b4a49e6.pdf.
Zakhilwal, Omar and Adeena Niazi. “The Warlords Win in Kabul.” The New York Times (nytimes.com). 21 June 2002.
Published
2020-06-25
How to Cite
Rofii, A. (2020). Islam, Islamic Law and Constitution Making: International and Domestic Engagement in the Constitution-Making Process in Afghanistan. Mazahib, 19(1), 1-40. https://doi.org/10.21093/mj.v19i1.2142
Section
Articles
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