Interrelation of Spirituality, Religiosity, and Competence with Madrasah Teachers’ Performance
Keywords:
competence, madrasah teacher, performance, religiosity, spirituality
Abstract
This study aimed to examine whether spirituality, religiosity, and competence can predict teacher performance. To prove this, a study was conducted on 90 Madrasah teachers in Samarinda as the sample in this study. The research sample was selected randomly, the number of which was determined based on the Slovin formula with a precision level of 0.10 (N=867). To obtain empirical data, researchers used a questionnaire on spirituality, religiosity, competence, and teacher performance. The research data were analyzed using Multiple Linear Regression with the SPSS V26 program. The analysis results showed a significant level of p <0.05 with a relationship strength of 0.843, which means that there is a significant relationship between spirituality, religiosity, and competence with teacher performance. Simultaneously, the contribution of the three independent variables to teacher performance was 53.8%, while partially, each independent variable contributed 50.8% (spirituality), 24% (religiosity), and 59.8% (competence). The implication is that these findings prove that one cannot rely solely on competency factors to get good performance from teachers. Although competence has the highest contribution, it also takes a religiosity factor that will give direction to individuals in their work, namely worshipping Allah SWT, and spiritual factors that provide meaning and prosperity in life. Thus, it can be concluded that the level of teacher performance can be predicted through the teacher's spirituality, religiosity, and competence.
References
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Adi, P. H., & Adawiyah, W. R. (2018). The impact of religiosity, environmental marketing orientation and practices on performance: A case of Muslim entrepreneurs in Indonesia. Journal of Islamic Marketing, 9(4), 841–862. https://doi.org/10.1108/JIMA-09-2016-0067
Alharbi, R. K., Yahya, S. B., & Kassim, S. (2021). Impact of religiosity and branding on SMEs performance: Does financial literacy play a role? Journal of Islamic Marketing, 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1108/JIMA-08-2019-0162
Ali, M. D. (2018). Pendidikan agama Islam. Rajawali Pers.
Amaliah, I., Aspiranti, T., & Purnamasari, P. (2015). The impact of the values of Islamic religiosity to Islamic job satisfaction in Tasikmalaya West Java, Indonesia, Industrial Centre. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 211, 984–991. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.11.131
Antera, S. (2021). Professional competence of vocational teachers: A conceptual review. Vocations and Learning, 14(3), 459–479. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12186-021-09271-7
Ariani, D. W. (2021). The role of religiosity and spirituality in motivating and improving students’ performance in Indonesia. Journal of Education, Society and Behavioural Science, 34(8), 52–63. https://doi.org/10.9734/jesbs/2021/v34i830351
Azizah, S. N., Suparwoto, S., & Nuryana, Z. (2020). An evaluation toward the post-certification teacher performance in the natural history learning process for the elementary school degree. Psychology, Evaluation, and Technology in Educational Research, 2(2), 115. https://doi.org/10.33292/petier.v2i2.16
Bergsmann, E., Schultes, M.-T., Winter, P., Schober, B., & Spiel, C. (2015). Evaluation of competence-based teaching in higher education: From theory to practice. Evaluation and Program Planning, 52, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evalprogplan.2015.03.001
Chomarindariyana, C., Desembrianita, E., & Suyoto, S. (2021). The influence of work motivation and religiosity on teacher performance through commitment as mediation at SMP NU Gresik District. Jurnal Ilmu Ekonomi Dan Manajemen, 8(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.30996/jmm17.v8i01.4763
Dee, T. S., & Wyckoff, J. (2015). Incentives, selection, and teacher performance: Evidence from IMPACT. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 34(2), 267–297. https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.21818
Dewi, P., Budiyanto, B., & Agustedi, A. (2020). The role of interpersonal communication in moderating the effect of work competence and stress on employee performance. Accounting, 6(7), 1217–1226. https://doi.org/10.5267/j.ac.2020.9.005
Dewi, S. S., Madjid, Abd., & Fauzan, A. (2020). The role of religiosity in work-life balance. Budapest International Research and Critics Institute, 3(3), 2363–2374. https://doi.org/10.33258/birci.v3i3.1192
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Elliott, K. (2015). Teacher performance appraisal: More about performance or development? Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 40(9), 102–116. https://doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2015v40n9.6
Garg, N. (2017). Workplace spirituality and organizational performance in Indian context: Mediating effect of organizational commitment, work motivation and employee engagement. South Asian Journal of Human Resources Management, 4(2), 191–211. https://doi.org/10.1177/2322093717736134
Garg, N. (2020). Promoting organizational performance in indian insurance industry: The roles of workplace spirituality and organizational citizenship behaviour. Global Business Review, 21(3), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1177/0972150918778983
Gatley, J. (2021). Intrinsic value and educational value. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 55(4–5), 675–687. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9752.12555
Good, T. L., & Lavigne, A. L. (2015). Issues of teacher performance stability are not new: Limitations and possibilities. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 23(2), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.14507/epaa.v23.1916
Guarino, C. M., Reckase, M. D., & Wooldridge, J. M. (2015). Can value-added measures of teacher performance be trusted? Education Finance and Policy, 10(1), 117–156. https://doi.org/10.1162/EDFP_a_00153
Hassi, A., Balambo, M. A., & Aboramadan, M. (2021). Impacts of spirituality, intrinsic religiosity and Islamic work ethics on employee performance in Morocco: The mediating role of intrinsic motivation. Journal of Islamic Accounting and Business Research, 12(3), 439–456. https://doi.org/10.1108/JIABR-05-2020-0131
Houghton, J. D., Neck, C. P., & Krishnakumar, S. (2016). The what, why, and how of spirituality in the workplace revisited: A 14-year update and extension. Journal of Management, Spirituality & Religion, 13(3), 177–205. https://doi.org/10.1080/14766086.2016.1185292
Hunjra, A. I., Boubaker, S., Arunachalam, M., & Mehmood, A. (2021). How does CSR mediate the relationship between culture, religiosity and firm performance? Finance Research Letters, 39, 1–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.frl.2020.101587
Jena, L. K. (2021). Does workplace spirituality lead to raising employee performance? The role of citizenship behavior and emotional intelligence. International Journal of Organizational Analysis, 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJOA-06-2020-2279
Kagema, J., & Irungu, C. (2018). An analysis of teacher performance appraisals and their influence on teacher performance in secondary schools in Kenya. International Journal of Education, 11(1), 93–98. https://doi.org/10.17509/ije.v11i1.11148
King, U. (2017). Spirituality. In J. R. Hinnells (Ed.), A New Handbook of Living Religions (pp. 667–681). Blackwell Publishing Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781405166614.ch18
Koo, B.-S., & Lee, C.-Y. (2019). The moderating role of competence specialization in the effect of external R&D on innovative performance. R&D Management, 49(4), 574–594. https://doi.org/10.1111/radm.12344
Lepherd, L. (2015). Spirituality: Everyone has it, but what is it? International Journal of Nursing Practice, 21(5), 566–574. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijn.12285
Mathew, G. C., Prashar, S., & Ramanathan, H. N. (2018). Role of spirituality and religiosity on employee commitment and performance. International Journal of Indian Culture and Business Management, 16(3), 302. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJICBM.2018.090913
Molteni, F. (2021). A Need for Religion: Insecurity and Religiosity in the Contemporary World. BRILL. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004443273
Moon, T.-W., Youn, N., Hur, W.-M., & Kim, K.-M. (2020). Does employees’ spirituality enhance job performance? The mediating roles of intrinsic motivation and job crafting. Current Psychology, 39(5), 1618–1634. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-018-9864-0
Mousa, A. E. (2020). The impact of workplace spirituality on employee performance: Evidence from Abu Dhabi University. International Business Research, 13(5), 79. https://doi.org/10.5539/ibr.v13n5p79
Nellitawati, N. (2020). The influence of teacher pedagogical competence of teachers’ work morale. Journal of Counseling and Educational Technology, 3(1), 29–33. https://doi.org/10.32698/0931
Onyemah, V., Rouziès, D., & Iacobucci, D. (2018). Impact of religiosity and culture on salesperson job satisfaction and performance. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 18(2), 191–219. https://doi.org/10.1177/1470595818787543
Panjwani, F., & Revell, L. (2018). Religious education and hermeneutics: The case of teaching about Islam. British Journal of Religious Education, 40(3), 268–276. https://doi.org/10.1080/01416200.2018.1493269
Panzini, R. G., Mosqueiro, B. P., Zimpel, R. R., Bandeira, D. R., Rocha, N. S., & Fleck, M. P. (2017). Quality of life and spirituality. International Review of Psychiatry, 29(3), 263–282. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540261.2017.1285553
Periáñez-Cañadillas, I., Charterina, J., & Pando-García, J. (2019). Assessing the relevance of digital competences on business graduates’ suitability for a job. Industrial and Commercial Training, 51(3), 139–151. https://doi.org/10.1108/ICT-09-2018-0076
Undang-Undang Nomor 20 Tahun 2003 Tentang Sistem Pendidikan Nasional, LN.2003/NO.78, TLN NO.4301, LL SETNEG : 37 HLM (2003).
Undang-Undang Nomor 14 Tahun 2005 Tentang Guru dan Dosen, LL SETNEG : 36 HLM (2005).
Riwukore, J. R., & Habaora, F. (2021). The influence of competence and work motivation to teacher performance in SMP Negeri at Kupang City. Elementary Education, 20(1), 1010–1017. https://doi.org/10.17051/ilkonline.2021.01.73
Rocha, R. G., & Pinheiro, P. G. (2021). Organizational spirituality: Concept and perspectives. Journal of Business Ethics, 171(2), 241–252. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-020-04463-y
Romy, E., Ardansyah, M., & Hambali, H. (2021). The influence of pedagogic competency, leadership of schools, and work motivation towards teacher performance in State Elementary Schools in Medan City. International Journal for Educational and Vocational Studies, 3(3), 169–176. https://doi.org/10.29103/ijevs.v3i3.3716
Sapra, J., Khosla, K., & Dungrakoti, G. (2022). Spirituality at workplace and its impact on academic performance: An empirical study among private higher education faculties of Delhi NCR. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 35(1), 18–37. https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-08-2020-0248
Singerin, S. (2021). The impact of academic supervision on teacher pedagogical competence and teacher performance: The role moderating by teacher efficacy. International Journal of Elementary Education, 5(2), 496–504. https://doi.org/10.23887/ijee.v5i3.34072
Sudiapermana, E., & Muslikhah, M. (2020). The transformation of sustainable community empowerment based on islamic boarding schools system. Journal of Nonformal Education, 6(1), 36–43. https://doi.org/10.15294/jne.v6i1.23429
Suratman, S., Arafat, Y., & Eddy, S. (2020). The influence of principal’s leadership and teacher’s competence toward teacher’s performance in Indonesia. Journal of Social Work and Science Education, 1(2), 96–104. https://doi.org/10.52690/jswse.v1i2.32
Tijssen, R., Edwards, J., & Jonkers, K. (2021). Education and human resources development. In Regional Innovation Impact of Universities (pp. 70–77). Edward Elgar Publishing. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781839100536.00018
Wahyu, S., Rizal, F., & Syah, N. (2021). Teacher performance analysis in the learning process. Journal of Education Research and Evaluation, 5(1), 67–75. https://doi.org/10.23887/jere.v5i1.30758
Wahyuddin, W. (2016). The relationship between of teacher competence, emotional intelligence and teacher performance Madrasah Tsanawiyah at district of Serang Banten. Higher Education Studies, 6(1), 128. https://doi.org/10.5539/hes.v6n1p128
Widodo, W. (2021). Enhancing teachers’ professional competence through grit, personality, and creativity. Management Science Letters, 11(1), 129–138. https://doi.org/10.5267/j.msl.2020.8.022
Zulfikar, I., Efendi, S., Suheri, H., Pulubuhu, D. A., Kadir, R., & Parenta, T. (2021). The influence of work environment, motivation and competence to work performance and the impact on lecturer performance in Higher Education. Psychology and Education Journal, 58(1), 221–235. https://doi.org/10.17762/pae.v58i1.763
Adi, P. H., & Adawiyah, W. R. (2018). The impact of religiosity, environmental marketing orientation and practices on performance: A case of Muslim entrepreneurs in Indonesia. Journal of Islamic Marketing, 9(4), 841–862. https://doi.org/10.1108/JIMA-09-2016-0067
Alharbi, R. K., Yahya, S. B., & Kassim, S. (2021). Impact of religiosity and branding on SMEs performance: Does financial literacy play a role? Journal of Islamic Marketing, 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1108/JIMA-08-2019-0162
Ali, M. D. (2018). Pendidikan agama Islam. Rajawali Pers.
Amaliah, I., Aspiranti, T., & Purnamasari, P. (2015). The impact of the values of Islamic religiosity to Islamic job satisfaction in Tasikmalaya West Java, Indonesia, Industrial Centre. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 211, 984–991. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.11.131
Antera, S. (2021). Professional competence of vocational teachers: A conceptual review. Vocations and Learning, 14(3), 459–479. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12186-021-09271-7
Ariani, D. W. (2021). The role of religiosity and spirituality in motivating and improving students’ performance in Indonesia. Journal of Education, Society and Behavioural Science, 34(8), 52–63. https://doi.org/10.9734/jesbs/2021/v34i830351
Azizah, S. N., Suparwoto, S., & Nuryana, Z. (2020). An evaluation toward the post-certification teacher performance in the natural history learning process for the elementary school degree. Psychology, Evaluation, and Technology in Educational Research, 2(2), 115. https://doi.org/10.33292/petier.v2i2.16
Bergsmann, E., Schultes, M.-T., Winter, P., Schober, B., & Spiel, C. (2015). Evaluation of competence-based teaching in higher education: From theory to practice. Evaluation and Program Planning, 52, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evalprogplan.2015.03.001
Chomarindariyana, C., Desembrianita, E., & Suyoto, S. (2021). The influence of work motivation and religiosity on teacher performance through commitment as mediation at SMP NU Gresik District. Jurnal Ilmu Ekonomi Dan Manajemen, 8(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.30996/jmm17.v8i01.4763
Dee, T. S., & Wyckoff, J. (2015). Incentives, selection, and teacher performance: Evidence from IMPACT. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 34(2), 267–297. https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.21818
Dewi, P., Budiyanto, B., & Agustedi, A. (2020). The role of interpersonal communication in moderating the effect of work competence and stress on employee performance. Accounting, 6(7), 1217–1226. https://doi.org/10.5267/j.ac.2020.9.005
Dewi, S. S., Madjid, Abd., & Fauzan, A. (2020). The role of religiosity in work-life balance. Budapest International Research and Critics Institute, 3(3), 2363–2374. https://doi.org/10.33258/birci.v3i3.1192
Edwards, C., Edwards, A., Albrehi, F., & Spence, P. (2021). Interpersonal impressions of a social robot versus human in the context of performance evaluations. Communication Education, 70(2), 165–182. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634523.2020.1802495
Elliott, K. (2015). Teacher performance appraisal: More about performance or development? Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 40(9), 102–116. https://doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2015v40n9.6
Garg, N. (2017). Workplace spirituality and organizational performance in Indian context: Mediating effect of organizational commitment, work motivation and employee engagement. South Asian Journal of Human Resources Management, 4(2), 191–211. https://doi.org/10.1177/2322093717736134
Garg, N. (2020). Promoting organizational performance in indian insurance industry: The roles of workplace spirituality and organizational citizenship behaviour. Global Business Review, 21(3), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1177/0972150918778983
Gatley, J. (2021). Intrinsic value and educational value. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 55(4–5), 675–687. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9752.12555
Good, T. L., & Lavigne, A. L. (2015). Issues of teacher performance stability are not new: Limitations and possibilities. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 23(2), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.14507/epaa.v23.1916
Guarino, C. M., Reckase, M. D., & Wooldridge, J. M. (2015). Can value-added measures of teacher performance be trusted? Education Finance and Policy, 10(1), 117–156. https://doi.org/10.1162/EDFP_a_00153
Hassi, A., Balambo, M. A., & Aboramadan, M. (2021). Impacts of spirituality, intrinsic religiosity and Islamic work ethics on employee performance in Morocco: The mediating role of intrinsic motivation. Journal of Islamic Accounting and Business Research, 12(3), 439–456. https://doi.org/10.1108/JIABR-05-2020-0131
Houghton, J. D., Neck, C. P., & Krishnakumar, S. (2016). The what, why, and how of spirituality in the workplace revisited: A 14-year update and extension. Journal of Management, Spirituality & Religion, 13(3), 177–205. https://doi.org/10.1080/14766086.2016.1185292
Hunjra, A. I., Boubaker, S., Arunachalam, M., & Mehmood, A. (2021). How does CSR mediate the relationship between culture, religiosity and firm performance? Finance Research Letters, 39, 1–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.frl.2020.101587
Jena, L. K. (2021). Does workplace spirituality lead to raising employee performance? The role of citizenship behavior and emotional intelligence. International Journal of Organizational Analysis, 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJOA-06-2020-2279
Kagema, J., & Irungu, C. (2018). An analysis of teacher performance appraisals and their influence on teacher performance in secondary schools in Kenya. International Journal of Education, 11(1), 93–98. https://doi.org/10.17509/ije.v11i1.11148
King, U. (2017). Spirituality. In J. R. Hinnells (Ed.), A New Handbook of Living Religions (pp. 667–681). Blackwell Publishing Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781405166614.ch18
Koo, B.-S., & Lee, C.-Y. (2019). The moderating role of competence specialization in the effect of external R&D on innovative performance. R&D Management, 49(4), 574–594. https://doi.org/10.1111/radm.12344
Lepherd, L. (2015). Spirituality: Everyone has it, but what is it? International Journal of Nursing Practice, 21(5), 566–574. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijn.12285
Mathew, G. C., Prashar, S., & Ramanathan, H. N. (2018). Role of spirituality and religiosity on employee commitment and performance. International Journal of Indian Culture and Business Management, 16(3), 302. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJICBM.2018.090913
Molteni, F. (2021). A Need for Religion: Insecurity and Religiosity in the Contemporary World. BRILL. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004443273
Moon, T.-W., Youn, N., Hur, W.-M., & Kim, K.-M. (2020). Does employees’ spirituality enhance job performance? The mediating roles of intrinsic motivation and job crafting. Current Psychology, 39(5), 1618–1634. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-018-9864-0
Mousa, A. E. (2020). The impact of workplace spirituality on employee performance: Evidence from Abu Dhabi University. International Business Research, 13(5), 79. https://doi.org/10.5539/ibr.v13n5p79
Nellitawati, N. (2020). The influence of teacher pedagogical competence of teachers’ work morale. Journal of Counseling and Educational Technology, 3(1), 29–33. https://doi.org/10.32698/0931
Onyemah, V., Rouziès, D., & Iacobucci, D. (2018). Impact of religiosity and culture on salesperson job satisfaction and performance. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 18(2), 191–219. https://doi.org/10.1177/1470595818787543
Panjwani, F., & Revell, L. (2018). Religious education and hermeneutics: The case of teaching about Islam. British Journal of Religious Education, 40(3), 268–276. https://doi.org/10.1080/01416200.2018.1493269
Panzini, R. G., Mosqueiro, B. P., Zimpel, R. R., Bandeira, D. R., Rocha, N. S., & Fleck, M. P. (2017). Quality of life and spirituality. International Review of Psychiatry, 29(3), 263–282. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540261.2017.1285553
Periáñez-Cañadillas, I., Charterina, J., & Pando-García, J. (2019). Assessing the relevance of digital competences on business graduates’ suitability for a job. Industrial and Commercial Training, 51(3), 139–151. https://doi.org/10.1108/ICT-09-2018-0076
Undang-Undang Nomor 20 Tahun 2003 Tentang Sistem Pendidikan Nasional, LN.2003/NO.78, TLN NO.4301, LL SETNEG : 37 HLM (2003).
Undang-Undang Nomor 14 Tahun 2005 Tentang Guru dan Dosen, LL SETNEG : 36 HLM (2005).
Riwukore, J. R., & Habaora, F. (2021). The influence of competence and work motivation to teacher performance in SMP Negeri at Kupang City. Elementary Education, 20(1), 1010–1017. https://doi.org/10.17051/ilkonline.2021.01.73
Rocha, R. G., & Pinheiro, P. G. (2021). Organizational spirituality: Concept and perspectives. Journal of Business Ethics, 171(2), 241–252. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-020-04463-y
Romy, E., Ardansyah, M., & Hambali, H. (2021). The influence of pedagogic competency, leadership of schools, and work motivation towards teacher performance in State Elementary Schools in Medan City. International Journal for Educational and Vocational Studies, 3(3), 169–176. https://doi.org/10.29103/ijevs.v3i3.3716
Sapra, J., Khosla, K., & Dungrakoti, G. (2022). Spirituality at workplace and its impact on academic performance: An empirical study among private higher education faculties of Delhi NCR. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 35(1), 18–37. https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-08-2020-0248
Singerin, S. (2021). The impact of academic supervision on teacher pedagogical competence and teacher performance: The role moderating by teacher efficacy. International Journal of Elementary Education, 5(2), 496–504. https://doi.org/10.23887/ijee.v5i3.34072
Sudiapermana, E., & Muslikhah, M. (2020). The transformation of sustainable community empowerment based on islamic boarding schools system. Journal of Nonformal Education, 6(1), 36–43. https://doi.org/10.15294/jne.v6i1.23429
Suratman, S., Arafat, Y., & Eddy, S. (2020). The influence of principal’s leadership and teacher’s competence toward teacher’s performance in Indonesia. Journal of Social Work and Science Education, 1(2), 96–104. https://doi.org/10.52690/jswse.v1i2.32
Tijssen, R., Edwards, J., & Jonkers, K. (2021). Education and human resources development. In Regional Innovation Impact of Universities (pp. 70–77). Edward Elgar Publishing. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781839100536.00018
Wahyu, S., Rizal, F., & Syah, N. (2021). Teacher performance analysis in the learning process. Journal of Education Research and Evaluation, 5(1), 67–75. https://doi.org/10.23887/jere.v5i1.30758
Wahyuddin, W. (2016). The relationship between of teacher competence, emotional intelligence and teacher performance Madrasah Tsanawiyah at district of Serang Banten. Higher Education Studies, 6(1), 128. https://doi.org/10.5539/hes.v6n1p128
Widodo, W. (2021). Enhancing teachers’ professional competence through grit, personality, and creativity. Management Science Letters, 11(1), 129–138. https://doi.org/10.5267/j.msl.2020.8.022
Zulfikar, I., Efendi, S., Suheri, H., Pulubuhu, D. A., Kadir, R., & Parenta, T. (2021). The influence of work environment, motivation and competence to work performance and the impact on lecturer performance in Higher Education. Psychology and Education Journal, 58(1), 221–235. https://doi.org/10.17762/pae.v58i1.763
Published
2022-12-09
How to Cite
Susmiyati, S., Zurqoni, Z., Abdillah, M., & Saugi, W. (2022). Interrelation of Spirituality, Religiosity, and Competence with Madrasah Teachers’ Performance. Dinamika Ilmu, 22(2), 437-449. https://doi.org/10.21093/di.v22i2.4874
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